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Proto-Germanic folklore

Proto-Germanic paganism was the beliefs of the speakers of Proto-Germanic and includes topics such as the Germanic mythology, legendry, and folk beliefs of early Germanic culture. By way of the comparative method, Germanic philologists, a variety of historical linguist, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Germanic folklore. The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposed motifs from the early Germanic period.

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Proto-Germanic paganism was the beliefs of the speakers of Proto-Germanic and includes topics such as the Germanic mythology, legendry, and folk beliefs of early Germanic culture. By way of the comparative method, Germanic philologists, a variety of historical linguist, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Germanic folklore (reconstructions are indicated by the presence of an asterisk). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposed motifs from the early Germanic period.

Linguistic reconstructions can be obtained via comparison between the various Germanic languages, comparison with related words in other Indo-European languages, especially Celtic and Baltic, comparison with borrowings into neighbouring language families such as Uralic, or via a combination of those methods. This allows linguists to project some terms back to the Proto-Germanic period despite their attestation in only one Germanic language; for instance, *saidaz ('magic') is only attested in Old Norse seiðr, but has parallels in Proto-Celtic *soytos and Lithuanian saitas.

Deities

Proto-Germanic reconstruction Romano-Germanic West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic Etymology Notes
? *Agjō-þe(g)waz1
–
 OE Ecgþéow, OHG Eggideo1 ON Eggþér1
–
 Meaning 'edge-servant'.12 Peter H. Salus and Paul B. Taylor suggest that the name may have referred to an arouser of great battles and feuds,3 although other scholars remain skeptical about drawing a mythological parallel between Old English and Old Norse.24 See Eggþér for further discussion.
? Ala-fader5
–
–
 ON Alfǫðr5
–
 From Pre-Ger. *Ala-faþēr. Identical to PCelt. *Olo-(p)atīr (cf. Middle Irish Ollathair).6 An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of Óðinn in Old Norse. It can be compared with the Middle Irish Eochu Ollathair, commonly used for the Dagda.5
*Austrōn7 (See entry notes) OE Ēostre, OHG *Ôstara, OS *Āsteron78
–
–
 From the PIE stem *h2(e)wes- ('to shine, glow red'). Cognate with the Lithuanian deity Aušrinė, and further related to the PIE dawn-goddess *h₂éwsōs.7 A West Germanic spring goddess associated with a festival held in her name during the 'Easter-month', *Austro-mēnōþ, equivalent to modern 'April'.7 The matronae Austriahenae, if Germanic, derive from the same stem.8 The Old English and Old High German forms are the origin of the modern holiday names Easter and Ostern, respectively.9 See Ēostre for further discussion.
*Auza-wanđilaz10
–
 OE Ēarendel, OHG Aurendil, Lomb. Auriwandalo11 ON Aurvandil11 Goth. auzandil11 Probably a compound of PGmc *auzom ('shiny, shiny liquid') and a derivate of *wanđuz ('rod, cane').1012 The PGmc form would therefore perhaps mean 'Light-Beam'1012 Generally seen as a personification of the 'rising light' of the morning, possibly embodying the Morning Star (Venus).12 See Aurvandill for further discussion.
*Balđraz13
–
 OE Bældæg, OHG Balder13 ON Baldr13
–
 From PGmc *balþaz ('brave'), which is identical to Lith. báltas ('white', also the name of a light-god), based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' or 'strong' (man) > 'hero, lord, prince'.1415 ON Baldr ('brave, defiant; lord, prince') and OHG Balder are close to OE bealdor ('prince, hero').1415 The OE theonym Bældæg likely means 'Shining Day', as suggested by his association with 'day' and by the name of the Lith. light-god Báltas.16 See Baldr for further discussion.
Divine horse twins or dioscuri (motif)17 Alcis18 OE Hengist and Horsa, Low German Hengist and Hors (Holstein, 1875)19
–
–
–
 Scholars have proposed a variety of figures in the ancient Germanic record as extensions of this motif. Tacitus (Germania), mentions twin deities, the Alcis (PGmc *alhiz ~ *algiz), who he compares to the Greek Dioscuri. The deities are generally seen as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European Divine twins. Their name either means 'elk' or 'protector'.2021 Some scholars have speculated that it may be related to the z-rune ᛉ (algiz), although evidence is scarce.21
*Frawja- ~ *Fraw(j)ōn222324
–
 OE frēa; OFris. frā; OS frōho, frāho; MDu. vroon; OHG frō23 ON Freyr (theonym)23 Goth. frauja23 Unclear etymology.24 An epithet meaning 'Lord'/'Lady'.24 Occurs as a theonym in Old Norse and, in a Christian context, in Old English. According to Kroonen, "both in form and meaning, fraiwa- ('seed') is reminiscent of Freyr 'fertility deity' < *frauja-. We may therefore consider the possibility that *fraiwa- was metathesized from *frawja-, a collective of some kind."25 See *Fraujaz for further discussion.
*Frawjōn23
–
 OS frūa, OHG frouwa23 ON Freyja (theonym)23
–
*Frijjō26
–
 OE Frīg, OFris Frīa, OS Frī, OHG Frīja26 ON Frigg26
–
 From PGmc *frijaz ('free'), itself from PIE *priH-o- ('one's own, beloved').2627 In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related' (cf. PGmc *frijōnan 'to love', *friþuz 'friendship, peace').27 Goddess, in most sources partner of *Wōđanaz. Source of *Frijjadag ('Frijjō-day; Friday').28 See Frigg for further discussion.
*Fullōn29
–
 OHG Volla29 ON Fulla29
–
 From PGmc *fullaz ('full'), meaning 'fullness, plenitude'29 A goddess associated with *Frijjō. See Fulla for further discussion.
*Gautaz30
–
 OE Gēat, Lang.

Gausus31

ON Gautr, Gauti31 Goth. Gaut (Gapt)31 Derived from PGmc *geutanan ('to pour'), or an ablaut variant of *gutaz ~ *gutōn ('Goth, Gut')32 A name for Odin.31 The early Germanic form may mean 'pourer (of semen)', i.e. 'man'.33 Rudolf Simek writes that as a mythical ancestor of the Goths (Gapt) and considered an ancestor in so many places he may have been the same as Odin in the Germanic peoples' common homeland in Scandinavia.34 Also the name of the Geats.30 See Gaut for further discussion.
? *Haihaz35
–
–
 ON Hárr35 Goth. haihs35 Cognate with PCelt. *kaiko- ('one-eyed, blind in one eye') and, with a slightly different meaning, with PIt. *kaikos ('blind').6 Perhaps an epithet meaning 'One-Eyed', attested as a common noun in Gothic. ON Hárr, a byname of Óðinn, has been derived from an earlier Proto-Norse *Haiha-hariz/ʀ ('the One-eyed Hero').35 According to scholar Adam Hyllested, "the Celtic god Lug closes one eye in his magic ritual, while in Germanic mythology being one-eyed is a key attribute of Óðinn".6 See Hárr for further information.
*Hludanaz Hludana3637
–
 ON Hlóðyn3637
–
 Uncertain etymology.36 According to De Vries, probably a chthonic deity.3837 The ON Hlóðyn was possibly borrowed from the West Germanic theonym Hludana around the 8th c. AD.38 See Hludana for further discussion.
? *Huldō39
–
 Ger. Holda40 ON Huld, Hulder40
–
 Meaning 'the Hidden One'.40 Although the relationship between the names is uncertain, all forms point to a common meaning of 'the hidden one'.40
*Ingwaz41
–
 OE Ing, OS Ing41 ON Yngvi41 Goth. Ing, enguz4142 Uncertain etymology4142 A mythical ancestor, progenitor of the Ingvaeōnes. See also the Latinized Proto-Germanic personal name Inguiomērus. Name of the ŋ-rune ᛝ.41 See Yngvi for further discussion.
? *Ingwina-frawjaz43
–
 OE frēa Ingwina43 ON lngunarfreyr43
–
 Possibly a compound of PGmc *Ingwina- (Ing-friends') and *frawja- ('Lord'). *Ingwina- is derived from the name Ing- (see *Ingwaz) attached to PGmc *winiz ('friend').43 Together, these forms mean 'Lord of the Ing-friends'.43 (See Ingaevones) See also ON Ygvifreyr (< *Ingwia-frawjaz).43
*Mannaz ~ *Manwaz44 Mannus44 OE mann, OFris mann, OS mann, OHG man(n)44 ON maðr, mannr44 Goth. manna44 Meaning 'Man'.44 Cognate with Sanskrit Mánu and Avestan *Manuš.45 Cosmogonical figure; son of *Twistō, divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples (Tacitus). Name of the m-rune ᛗ (cf. man(n), maðr).44 See Mannus and Indo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Mēnōn46
–
 OE móna, OFris mōna, OS māno, ODu. māne, OHG māno4647 ON Máni4647 Goth. mēna, Crim. Goth. mine4647 Meaning 'Moon'.48 From PIE *meh₁n-ōs ('moon; month'). The Germanic n-stem arose secondarily from the nom. *mēnō, which may regularly continue *meh₁n-ōt (cf. PGmc *mēnōþ-z 'month').4648 Source of Late PGmc *Mēnandag ('Moon-day; Monday').49 Personified as a deity, Máni ('Moon'), in Old Norse.
*Nerþuz5051 Nerthus5052
–
 ON Njǫrðr5052
–
 The original meaning of the theonym is contested. It may be related to the Irish word nert, meaning 'force' and 'power'. The name Njǫrðr may be related to Njǫrun, an Old Norse goddess name.5354 See Nerthus, Njörðr, and Sister-wife of Njörðr for further discussion.
*Sowelō ~ *Sōel5556
–
 OHG Sunne (theonym), OE sigel57 ON Sól (theonym)57 Goth. sugil57 PGmc *Sowel- > *Sōel- (gen. *Sunnōn) derives from the PIE word for 'sun', *séh₂uel, whose genitive form is *sh₂éns, sh₂unós.58 *Sugelan is a variant of Sowelō that can be morphologically compared to PGmc *sweglaz ('sunlight').55 Meaning 'Sun'.58 A goddess and personification of the Sun. The variant *Sugelan may have been the original name of the s-rune ᛊ (cf. sigel, sugil), via taboo avoidance. The genitive form *Sunnōn is at the origin of OHG Sunne and Late PGmc *Sunnandag ('Sun-day'); it is also the predecessor to modern English Sun.59 See Sól for further discussion.
*Tīwaz60
–
 OE Tīw, OHG *Ziu60 ON Týr60 Goth. *Teiws61 From PIE *deywós ('celestial', hence a 'deity'), itself from *dyēus ('daylight sky god').62 A general epithet meaning 'god, deity' that eventually replaced the name of a specific deity whose original name is now lost. *Tīwaz was associated with the thing and equated with the Roman war god Mars through interpretatio germanica. Name of the t-rune (ᛏ).636264 Source of Late PGmc *Tīwasdag ('Tīwaz-day; Tuesday').65 See Týr for further discussion
*Twistō Tuisto
–
–
–
 Etymologically 'Twofold' (i.e. 'Twin', 'Bisexual', or 'Hermaphrodite').666768 Related to PGmc *twistaz, which is structurally close to Sanskrit dviṣṭa- ('staying in two places, ambiguous').69 Legendary divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples according to Tacitus. See Tuisto and Indo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Þingsaz70 Thingsus MDu. Dings*, MLG Dinges*, OHG Dinges*
–
–
 From PGmc *þingaz ('thing, assembly'). An epithet meaning 'of the thing'70 Attached to Mars (*Tīwaz) in early West Germanic cultures (see interpretatio germanica and interpretatio romana); perhaps originally a god associated with law. Attested in Latin as Thingsus, and probably included in the name for 'Tuesday' in some Germanic languages.7170
*Þun(a)raz60
–
 OE Þunor, OS Thunar, OFris Thuner, OHG Donar60 ON Þórr60
–
 From the PIE root *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder'). Cognate with the Celt. thunder-god Taranis (< *Tonaros), and further related to the Latin epithet Tonans.7273 Meaning 'Thunder'60 According to Peter Jackson, the Celtic–Germanic theonym *Þun(a)raz ~ *Tonaros may have emerged as the result of the fossilization of an original epithet or epiclesis of the PIE thunder-god *Perkwunos.74 Source of Late PGmc *Þonaresdag ('Þunraz-day; Thursday').75 See also below *melđunjaz, the name of *Þunraz's weapon. See Thor for further discussion.
*Yum(i)yaz4176
–
–
 ON Ymir76
–
 Meaning 'Twin'.76 Cognate with Skt Yama, Av. Yima, and probably with Lat. Remus (< *Yemos).7778 Cosmogonical figure, mythical primeval ancestor. See Ymir and Indo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Wōđanaz79
–
 OE Wōden, OS Woden, OD Wuodan, OHG Wuotan, Lomb. Godan79 ON Óðinn79
–
 Meaning 'Lord of Frenzy'.80 From PGmc *wōđaz ('delirious, raging') attached to the suffix -naz ('master of'). The former is identical to PCelt. *wātis ('seer, sooth-sayer') and Lat. vātēs ('prophet, seer').816 Evidence points to a god strongly associated with ecstatic divination and wisdom. Compare the numerous Germanic cognates connoting 'violent agitation, mad rage, possession' with ON Óðr ('wit, sense, song, poetry'), OE wōð ('sound, voice, song'), and the other Indo-European cognates meaning 'seer, prophet'. Source of Late PGmc *Wōdanesdag ('Wōdanaz-day; Wednesday').82 See Óðinn for further discussion.
? *Wōđaz816
–
 OE wōð, OHG wuot, MD woet816 ON Óðr816
–
 From Pre-Germanic *uoh₂-tós. Related to PCelt *wātis ('seer, sooth-sayer') and *wātus ('prophesy, poetic inspiration').816 Meaning 'possessed, inspired, delirious, raging'. The source of the Old Norse theonym *wōđa-naz.816 The related Celtic stem *wātu- is also attested in the Belgic god Vatumar.83 See Óðr for further discussion.
*Wulþuz84 (o)wlþu-85
–
 ON Ullr85
–
 From PIE *ul-tu- < *uel- ('to see'). Identical to Lat. vultus ('facial expression, appearance').8486 Meaning 'Glory'.86 Attested as owlþuþewaz ('servant of owlþuz') on the Thorsberg chape (3rd c. AD).85 Cf. also Goth. wulþus ('glory'). OE wuldor ('glory') stems from PGmc *wuldraz.86 See Ullr for further discussion.
*Wurđiz87
–
 OE wyrd, OS wurd, OHG wurt87 ON Urðr87
–
 Meaning 'Fate'.88 From PGmc *werþanan ('to come about, happen, become').8788 A concept comparable to fate personified as a female entity in Old Norse (a norn, a goddess-like being) and in Old English. See Urðr for further discussion.
Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Entities

Proto-Germanic reconstruction West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic Etymology Notes
*alƀaz89 OE ælf, MD alf, MLG alf, OHG alb89 ON álfr89 Burg. *alfs8990 From the PIE root for '(matt) white', *h₂elbʰ-. Structurally close to Lat. albus ('(matt) white') and Grk alphoús ('white').89 Evidence from the early Germanic languages, as well as occasional contemporary evidence of a Latin borrowing aelfae (referring to a diabolic being), point to a shared inherited belief in supernatural beings, though the precise details of this belief are hard to trace because of the limitation of sources.91 See elf for further discussion.
*al(j)a-wihtiz92 OE æl-wiht92 ON al-vitr92
–
 Compound of *aljaz ('other') and *wihtiz ('thing, creature').92 See *wehtiz ~ *wihtiz below.
*ansuz ~ *ansiz93 OE ōs, OS ās, OHG ansi-94 ON áss94 Goth. anses94 Meaning '(a) deity'. From PIE *h₂ems-u- < *h₂ems- ('to give birth'). Identical to Hitt. ḫassu- ('king'), Skt. ásu- ('life, vital strength'), Av. ahu- ('lord'), or Venet. ahsu- ('cult image'). Further related to Skt ásura- and Av. ahura- ('god, lord').9596 Potentially connected to PGmc *ansaz 'beam' (see also Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe).95 Also attested in early Scandinavian runic asu- (probably for *ansu-).97 Name of the a-rune ᚨ. See Æsir for further discussion.
*đīsō ~ dīsi-9899 OE ides, OS idis, OHG itis98 ON dís98
–
 Uncertain etymology.99 The West Germanic forms present some difficulty to resolve but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (e.g. OE ides Scildinga and ON dís Skjǫldunga).100 A variety of goddess-like supernatural female entity. Variously rendered by translators into modern English as terms like 'goddess', '(noble, divine) lady', or 'fairy'.101 The PGmc form may occur in the place name Idistaviso (perhaps PGmc *Idisiaviso 'plain of the Idisi') and may be further reflected in ON Iðavöllr if the location name is amended to *Ið[is]avöllr.102 According to Jan de Vries, although the connection between the West Germanic and Old Norse forms remains controversial, the fact that ON dís goes back to Proto-Germanic is proved by the personal names Frank. Agedisus, Disibod, Aleman. Disi, Lomb. Tiso.103 See dís and Idis (Germanic) and compare *wala-kuzjōn below.
*draugaz104
–
 ON draugr104
–
 Identical to PCelt. *drougos (cf. OIr. airdrech 'sprite, phantom' < *(p)ari-drougo-).104 A name for a supernatural being akin to a phantom or a ghost.104 See draugr for further discussion.
*dwas-105 OE dwœs, MHG ge-twās105
–
–
 From Pre-Ger. *dhwos-. Related to PCelt. *dwosyos (cf. Gaul. dusios 'incubus, daemon') and Lith. dvasià ('breath, spirit, soul').105 A name for a supernatural being akin to a phantom or a ghost.105
*đwergaz106 OE dweorg, OFris. dwirg, OS *dwerg, MDu. dwerch, OHG twerg106107 ON dvergr106
–
 Unclear etymology. Perhaps from a PGmc verb *dwerganan ('to squeeze, press') possibly attested in MHG zwergen.108 References to dwarfs as supernatural beings occur in Old Norse, Middle High German, and Middle Dutch. While Old English texts do not clearly show the mythological sense, it is suggested by the use of the word to label an unknown illness (likely blamed on a supernatural being), which may be compared with the early Scandinavian (runic) term tuirk, an ailment apparently marked by headaches. Additionally, early place names such as Dueridene, Dwerihouse and Dwerffehole hint at a supernatural concept of dwarfs, often associated with subterranean spaces.109 For further discussion, see Dwarf.
*etunaz110 OE eōten110 ON jǫtunn110
–
 Probably from PGmc *etanan ('to eat').110 One of several terms connected to a class of entity. See jötunn for further discussion.
*gaistaz111 OE gǽst, OFris gāst, OS gēst, ODu. gēst, OHG geist111112113
–
–
 Meaning 'ghost, spirit, wrath'. From Pre-Ger. *ghois-t-oz ('fury, anger'), which is comparable to Sanskrit héḍas ('anger') and Avestan zōižda- ('terrible, ugly').112113 Although the word is only attested in the West Germanic languages, it appears to be of pre-Germanic formation.113 See ghost for further discussion.
*gudą114115 or *gud(a)z116 (neuter) OE god, OFris. god, ODu. god, OS god, OHG got116117 ON guð116 Goth. guþ116 Meaning '(a) deity' and predecessor to modern English god. Unclear etymology. Traditionally derived from *ǵʰu-t(ó)- ('libated one') < *ǵʰeu- ('to pour'), although alternative connections with PIE *ǵʰeuH- ('to invoke'), with OCS gověti ('to revere'), or with Greek χυτὴ γαῖα ('burial mound') have also been proposed.116118 The source of PGmc *guđ(a)-fuhtaz ('god-fearing'), *guđ(a)-lausaz ('god-less'), aƀa-guđaz ('godless, lit. off-god'), *guđ(a)-waƀjaz ('precious fabric, silk'), or *guđ(a)-hūsan (temple; if not a calque of Lat. domus Dei).119
*lenþa-wurmaz120 MLG linde-worm, OHG lind-wurm120 ON linn-ormr120
–
 Compound of *lenþaz ('snake') and *wurmaz ('worm').120 A dragon or serpent-like entity. See lindworm and germanic dragon for further discussion.
*marōn111 OE mære, MD māre, OS māra, OHG mara111121 ON mara111
–
 From PIE *mor-eh₂, of unclear origin. Cognate with Slav. *morà ('nightly spirit, bad dream') and OIr. mor-rígain ('queen of bad dreams'; a goddess of the battlefield and female malicious entity). See also the Russian kiki-mora, a female house-spirit that spins at night.122121 A malevolent female spirit associated with bad dreams (as in the second element of modern English night-mare). The image of a female ghost or malicious entity who tortures people by way of nightmares is apparently common to Slavic, Germanic and, possibly, Celtic.123 Borrowed from Middle Dutch into Old Picard as mare > cauque-mare (attached to cauquier 'to press'; mod. Fr. cauchemar), which designated a 'witch' haunting bad dreams.124 See Mare (folklore) for further discussion.
*nikwiz ~ *nikwuz ~ *nikwaza-125126 OE nicor, MDu. nicker, MLG necker, OHG nichus, nihhus125126 ON nykr125
–
 From PIE *nígʷ-ōs < *neigʷ- ('to wash').125126 An entity associated with water, which probably also existed under the feminine form *nikwazjōn (cf. OHG nickessa).126 See Nixie (folklore) for further discussion.
*skrattōn ~ *skradan-127128 OE scrætte, OHG scratto127128 ON skratti127128
–
 An n-stem originally inflected as *skradō, gen. *skrattaz < *skrodʰōn, *skrodʰnós.128 A variety of malicious entity.127128
*skōhsla-104
–
–
 Goth. skōhsl104 Identical to PCelt. *skāhslo- (cf. Old Irish scál ‘supernatural or superhuman being, phantom, giant, hero; the god Lug’, Middle Welsh yscaul ‘hero, champion, warrior').104 A name for an evil spirit or a demon.104
*þurisaz129130 OE ðyrs, OHG duris129 ON þurs129
–
 No clear etymology. Perhaps related to ON þyrja ('to rush'), ON þora ('to dare'), or Icel. þursi ('quarrel, anger, rage').129130 One of a series of semantically related Proto-Germanic terms for a type of entity. Borrowed into early Finnish as Turisas, a war god and a sea monster.130 See jötunn for further discussion.
*wrisjōn131 OS wrisi-, OHG riso131 ON risi131
–
 Probably related to Greek ῥίον ('peak, headland').131 One of the Proto-Germanic terms semantically related to jötunn. Occurs also in OS wrisi-līk ('enormous, wrisi-like').131 For further discussion, see jötunn.
*wala-kuzjōn132 OE wælcyrge132 ON valkyrja132
–
 Meaning 'chooser of the slain'. Compound of *walaz ('the slain') and *kuzjōn ('chooser' < PGmc *keusanan 'to trial, select').132133 See also OE wæl-cēasega, a name for 'raven' that literally means 'chooser of the slain'.134 A variety of goddess-like female entity. Compare *đīsō above.132 See valkyrie for further discussion.
*wira-wulfaz135 OE were-wulf, OFrank. *wer-wolf, MDu. weer-wolf, MLG wer-wulf, WFris. waer-ûl(e), MHG wer-wolf135136 ON varg-úlfr135
–
 Meaning 'man-wolf' and predecessor to modern English werewolf. Probably a compound of *wiraz ('man') and *wulfaz ('wolf').137138 Alternately derived from *wazi-wulfaz ('wolf-clothed'), bringing the compound semantically in line with the Slavic name for 'werewolf', *vьlko-dlakь, literally 'wolf-haired'.138 The Norse branch underwent taboo modifications, with ON vargúlfr replacing *wiraz ('man') with vargr ('outlaw; wolf'), probably under the influence of Old French leus warous, which literally means 'wolf-werewolf'.137138139 Old Frankish *werwolf is inferred from ONorm. garwa(l)f ~ garo(u)l.140139 The modern Norse forms varulv (Danish, Norwegian) and varulf (Swedish) were probably borrowed from MLG werwulf,139 or else be derived from an unattested ON *varulfr, posited as the regular descendant form of PGmc *wira-wulfaz.136 See werewolf for further discussion.
*wehtiz ~ *wihtiz141 OE wiht, OS wiht, Du. wicht, OHG wiht141 ON vættr141 Goth. waihts141 A 'creature'. Related to Slav. *vektь ('thing').141 Possibly from PIE *weḱti- ~ *weǵʰ-ti-, or a Germanic–Slavic isogloss.142 Cf. also Far. -vætti ('miserable creature') < *wehtja-.142 Referring to a 'creature, being, thing' in Germanic languages. See wight for further discussion
Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Locations

Proto-Germanic reconstruction Translation West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic Etymology Notes
*Ferg(w)unjan ~ *Ferg(w)unjō143144 'mountain' OHG Firgunnea143144 ON Fjǫrgyn143144
–
 Probably from PIE *per-kwun-ih₂ ('wooded mountains', i.e. the realm of *Perkwunos). Cognate with PCelt. *ferkunyo > (H)ercynia.144145 Cognate with or borrowed into Slav. as *per(g)ynja ('wooded hills').144145 Cf. also Goth. fairguni and OE firgen ('mountain').143144 See Perkwunos for further discussion.
*Haljō146 'the concealed' OE hell, OFris helle, ODu. helle, OS hellia, OHG hella146147 ON hel146 Goth. halja146 From PGmc *helanan ('to conceal, hide').146148 Precursor to modern English Hell, attested as an afterlife location throughout Germanic languages and personified as a female entity in Old Norse and Old English. See Hel (being) and Hel (location).
*Halja-wītjan146 'hell-knowledge' OE helle-wīte, OS helli-wīti, MHG helle-wītze146 ON hel-víti146
–
 Compound of PGmc *Haljō ('Hell') and *wītjan ('knowledge, reason').146 A poetic name for an underworld location. See *Haljō above.
*hem(e)naz149150 'heaven' OE heofon, OFris. himel, OS heƀan, ODu. himil, MLG hēven, OHG himil150151 ON himinn149150 Goth. himins149150 From the gen. *h₂ḱmnós of PIE *h₂eḱmon ('heavenly vault of stone'). Possibly cognate with PGmc *hamaraz ('hammer') via a metathesized stem *ḱ(e)h₂-m-r- (cf. Grk kamára 'vault').149152 See Perkwunos#Heavenly vault of stone for further discussion.
*(hemena-)wangaz149153 '(heaven-)meadow' OS heƀan-wang, OE (neorxna-)wang149153 ON himin-vangr, (Fólk)vangr149153 Gothic waggs153 Compound of PGmc *hemenaz ('heaven') and *wangaz ('meadow').149 The noun *wangaz stems from the PIE root *uongʰ-, denoting a 'field'.154 A term denoting an afterlife heavenly meadow. PGmc *wangaz occurs as a gloss for 'paradise' in Old Norse, Old English, and Gothic, implying an early Germanic concept of an afterlife field in the heaven.153 Fólkvangr is an afterlife location associated with the goddess Freyja in Old Norse texts. See Fólkvangr and Neorxnawang.
*Meðjana-garðaz155 'middle-enclosure' OE middan-geard, OS middil-gard, OHG mitti-gart155156 ON mið-garðr155 Goth. midjun-gards155 Compound of PGmc *meðjanaz ('middle') and *garðaz ('enclosure, courtyard').155 See Midgard for further discussion.
*wira-alđiz157 'man-age' OE weorold, OFris. wrald, OS werold, MDu. werelt, OHG weralt157158 ON verǫld157
–
 Compound of PGmc *wiraz ('man') and *alđiz ('age').157 The inhabited world, the realm of humankind. Source of modern English world.158
Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Other

Proto-Germanic reconstruction Translation West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic Etymology Notes
*alh(a)z159 'temple' OE ealh, OS alah159 ON -áll159 Goth. alhs159 Identical to Lith. alkas ('holy grove').159160
–
*austro-mēnōþ 'Austrōn-month' OE ēosturmōnaþ, ODu. ostermanoth, OHG ōstarmānōd1619
–
–
 A compound of WGmc *Austrōn (a female deity) and *mēnōþ ('month'). A West Germanic name for the 'month of *Austrōn', associated with a festival held around April and eventually displaced by the Christian Easter.161 See Ēostre and Ēosturmōnaþ for further discussion.
*ƀlōtanan162 'to sacrifice' OE blōtan, OHG bluozan162 ON blóta162 Goth. blotan162 Traditionally compared to Lat. flāmen ('sacrificial priest'), possibly from an earlier *flādsmen < *bʰleh₂dmen-.162163164 Source of PGmc *ƀlostran ('sacrifice') and *ƀlotan ('sacrifice, worship').165
*ƀlōta-hūsan165 'house of worship, house of sacrifice' OHG bluoz-hūz165 ON blót-hús165
–
 Compound of PGmc *ƀlotan ('sacrifice, worship') and *hūsan ('house').165 Place of worship, temple.165
*elhja-6 'evil'
–
 ON illr6
–
 From Pre-Ger. *elkyo-, attested in the Finnish loanwords elkiä ('mean, malicious') and ilkeä ('bad, mean, wicked'). Possibly related to Old Irish ol(c)c ('bad, evil').6
–
*frijjadag 'Friday' OE Frīgedæg, OFris. Frīadei, MDu. Vriendach, MLG Vrīdach, OHG Frīatag166 ON Frjádagr166
–
 A Late PGmc compound of *Frijjō ('Frigg') and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Veneris dies.166 See *Frijjō above. ON Frjádagr was borrowed from OHG Frīatag.167 Source of Modern English Friday.
*galđran168 'magic song, spell, charm' OE gealdor, OHG galtar168 ON galdr168
–
 From PGmc *galanan ('to shout, sing, chant').168169 See galdr for further discussion.
*guđ(j)ōn116 'priest' OE *gydda ON goði, gyðja116170 Goth. gudja116170 From PGmc *guđaz ('god').116 The Old English form appears as an apparent historical element of Modern English place names such as Gedding and Gidleigh.171
*hailagaz35 'holy' OE hālig, OFris. hēlich, OS hēlag, OHG heilag35 ON heilagr35 Goth. hailags35 From PGmc *hailaz ('hale, whole, sound').35 Source of PGmc *hailagōjanan ('to make holy, consecrate').35
*hailaga-mēnōþ 'holy-month' OE hāliġ-mōnaþ, ODu. heil-mānōth, OHG heilag-mānōth172
–
–
 A compound of PGmc *hailagaz ('holy') and *mēnōþ ('month'). A West Germanic name for the 'holy month', equivalent to modern 'September' or 'December'.172 See Hāliġmōnaþ for further discussion.
*harƀistu-mēnōþz173 'autumn-month, harvest-month' OE hærfest-mōnaþ, ODu. hervist-mānōth, OHG herbist-mānōth173 ON haust-mánuðr173
–
 A compound of PGmc *harƀistaz ('autumn, harvest') and *mēnōþz ('month').173 Early Germanic name of the 'month of harvest'; roughly equivalent to modern 'August–November'.173 Cf. also ODu. Aranmānōth ~ OHG Aranmānōd ('harvest month, August'), from another PGmc stem *azani- ('harvest').
*har(u)gaz174175 'holy stone', perhaps 'sacrificial mound'175 OE hearg, OHG harug174 ON hǫrgr174
–
 From Pre-Ger. *karkú-. Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source as PCelt. *karrikā ('stone').174175104 See hörgr for further information
*halja-rūnō(n)176 'witch, sorceress' OE helle-rūne, OHG helli-rūna176
–
 Lat.-Goth. pl. (Jordanes) haliurunae176 Compound of *haljō ('Hel') and *rūnō ('secret, mystery, rune').176
–
*hunslan177 'sacrifice' OE hūsel177 ON húsl177 Goth. hunsl177 A sla-suffix added to the PIE stem *ḱuent- ('holy, sacred').177178
–
*hugi-rūnō179 'secret of the mind, magical rune' OE hyge-rūn179 ON hug-rúnar179
–
 Compound of *hugiz ('understanding, mind') and *rūnō ('secret, mystery, rune').179
–
*jehwlan180 'Yule' OE geō(hho)l180 ON jól180 Goth. *jaihl181 No credible etymology.181180 Name of a Germanic festival organized at the end of each year. Cf. also *Jehwla-đagaz ('Yule-day').181180 See Yule for further discussion.
*jehwla-mēnōþz ~ *jehwlaz181180 'Yule-month' OE gēol-mōnaþ, gīuli180 ON jól-mánuðr, ýlir180 Goth. jiuleis180
*jēra-mēnōþz182 'year-month' OHG jār-mānōd182 ON ár-mánaðr182
–
 A compound of PGmc *jēran ('year') and mēnōþz ('month').182 Early Germanic name of the 'year-month'; equivalent to modern 'January'.
*kunjaz183 'omen'
–
 ON kyn183
–
 Closely related to Lith. žinià ('knowledge, magic').183
–
*lēk(i)jaz184105 'healer, physician' OE lǣce, OS lāki, OFris. letza, OHG lāhhi184 ON lækir184 Goth. lekeis184 From Pre-Ger. *lēgyos. Borrowed from PCelt. lēagis (cf. OIr. lieig 'physician, healer, leech').184105 Source of PGmc *lēkinan ('cure, remedy') and *lēkinōjanan ('to heal').184
*lubjan185 'herbal medicine, magic potion' OE lybb, OS lubbi, MDu. lubbe, OHG lubbi185186 ON lýf185 Goth. lubja-185 Related to PGmc *lauban ('foliage'; cf. PCelt. *lubi- 'herb').186105 Medicinal herb associated with magic (cf. Goth. lubja-leisei 'witchcraft, alchemist', OHG lubbari 'magician').185186
*melđunjaz187 'lightning', 'hammer'
–
 ON Mjǫllnir187
–
 From a PIE stem meld-n-, which may have originally designated Perkwunos' weapon. Cognate with Latv. milna (Pērkōns' hammer), OPrus. mealde ('lightning'), OCS mъldni ('lightning'), Welsh mellten ('bolt of lightning').188 Thor's hammer. See Mjǫllnir for further discussion.
*mēnandag 'Monday' OE Mōnandæg, OFris. Mōnandei, MDu. MLG Mānendach, OHG Mānetag189 ON Mánadagr189
–
 A Late PGmc compound of *Menōn ('Moon') and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Lunae dies.189 See *Mēnōn above. Source of Modern English Monday.
*nemeđaz190 'sacred grove' OFrank. nimid, OS nimidas190191 Swed. Nymden191
–
 Related to or borrowed PCelt. *nemetom ('sacred grove, sanctuary').190191 See sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology
*rūnō192 'secret, mystery; secret counsel; rune' OE rūn, OS rūna, MDu. rūne, OHG rūna192 ON rún192 Goth. runa192 Borrowed from or cognate with PCelt. *rūna ('secret, magic').192 Source of PGmc *runōn ('counsellor'), *rūnjan ('mystery'), *raunō ('trial, inquiry, experiment').192 See runes for further discussion.
*rūna-stabaz192 'runic letter' OE rūn-stæf, OHG rūn-stab192 ON rúna-stafr192
–
 A compound of PGmc *rūnō ('secret, mystery, counsel') and *stabaz ('staff; letter').192
–
*saidaz193194 'spell, charm, magic'
–
 ON seiðr193194
–
 From Pre-Ger. *saiþa-, which is cognate with Lith. saitas ('soothsaying, talisman') and PCelt. *soyto- ('magic').193194105 Probably originally identical to PIE *soito- ('string, rope'), from *seh2i- ('to bind').105 See also the PGmc verb *sīdanan ('to work charms'; cf. ON síða) and OE -siden 'magic' (< *sidnō-).193194
*saiwalō195 'soul' OE sāwel; OFris sēle; OS sēola, sēla; OHG sēola, sēla195
–
 Goth. saiwala195 According to Vladimir Orel, derived from PGmc *saiwiz ~ *saiwaz ('sea, lake'), "probably because of a Germanic belief in souls born out of and returning to sacred lakes".195
–
*skaldaz196 'poet' OHG skelto196 ON skáld196
–
 Probably from a PGmc verb *skeldanan ~ *skadjanan ('to announce, reproach'; cf. ME scolden, OFri. skelda, ODu. sceldan, OHG sceltan).196 Perhaps related to PCelt. *sketlo- ('story, tidings'; cf. OIr. scél 'saga, narrative', MWelsh chwedl 'traditional narrative, tidings').197 OHG skelto, MHG schelte mean 'blamer, criticizer, satirist'.196 Middle English scāld was borrowed from ON skáld.198199 See skald for further discussion.
*sumlan200 'banquet, symposium' OE symbel, OS sumbal200 ON sum(b)l200
–
 From PIE *sṃ-lo- ('joint meal').200 See symbel for further discussion.
*sunnandag 'Sunday' OE Sunnandæg, OFris. Sunnandei, MDu. Sonnendach, MLG Sunnendach, OHG Sunnūntag201 ON Sunnudagr201
–
 A Late PGmc compound of *sunnōn (genitive of *Sowēlo 'Sun') attached to *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Solis dies.201 See Sowēlo ~ Sōel above. Source of Modern English Sunday.
*tafnan202 'sacrificial meat'
–
 ON tafn202203
–
 From Pre-Ger. dapno- < PIE *dh₂p-no- ('sacrificial meal'). Cognate with Lat. damnum ('harm, damage, loss'), MIr. dúan ('poem, song') and Arm. tawn ('feast').202203204
–
*taufran205 'sorcery, magic' OE tēafor, OFris. tāver, MLG tover, OHG zoubar205 ON taufr205
–
 Possibly derived from PGmc *tawjanan ('to do, make').205
–
*tiƀran206 'sacrifice, animal offering' OE tiber, tifer, OHG zebar206
–
 Goth. aibr206 Cognate with Greek δεῖπνον ('meal') and Arm. tvar ('male sheep') < PIE *déip-r, gen. dip-n-ós.206207 According to some scholars, Goth. aibr should be emended to *tibr.208207
–
*tīwasdag 'Tuesday' OE Tīwesdæg, OFris. Tīesdei, OHG Ziestag209 ON Týsdagr209
–
 A Late PGmc compound of *Tīwaz (Týr) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Martis dies.209 See *Tīwaz above. Source of Modern English Tuesday.
*þonaresdag 'Thursday' OE Þunresdæg, OFris. Thunresdei, MDu. Donresdach, OHG Donarestag210 ON Þórsdagr210
–
 A Late PGmc compound of *Þun(a)raz (Thor) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Iovis dies.210 See *Þun(a)raz above. Source of Modern English Thursday.
*wīhaz211212 'holy, divine' OE wīg-, OS wīh-, OHG wīh211212
–
 Goth. weihs211212 From PIE *wéik-o-.212 Identical to Lith. viẽkas ('life force'), and further related to Lat. victima ('sacrificial animal').211212 Source of PGmc *wīhēnan ~ *wīhjanan ('to consecrate'), *wīhislōn ('consecration'), and *wīhiþō ('holiness, sanctity').213212
*wīhan211 'sanctuary' OE wīh, OS wīh, OHG wīh211 ON vé211
–
 From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine').211214 See Vé (shrine) for further discussion.
*wīhōn211 'priest'
–
 ON Véi211 Goth. weiha211 From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine').211 See Vili and Vé for further discussion.
*wikkōnan214 'to practice sorcery' OE wiccian, WFris. wikje, MDu. wicken, MHG wicken214
–
–
 From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine').214 This verb served as the derivational base for OE wicca ('witch') and MHG MDu. wicker ('soothsayer').214 Source of Modern English witch.
*wītagōn215 'wizard, prophet' OE wítega, OHG wīzago215 ON vitki215
–
 From PGmc *witanan ('to know').215 Source of the PGmc verb *wītagōjanan ('to prophesy').215
*wōdanesdag 'Wednesday' OE Wōdnesdæg, OFris. Wērnisdei, MDu. Woensdach, MLG Wōdensdach, OHG Wōdanstag216 ON Óðinsdagr216
–
 A Late PGmc compound of *Wōdanaz (Odin) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Mercurii dies.216 See *Wōdanaz above. Source of Modern English Wednesday.
Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Shared lexicon with Celtic, Baltic and Slavic

Proto-Celtic

The common religious vocabulary between Celtic and Germanic languages suggests that speakers of Proto-Germanic and Proto-Celtic were in close contact in ancient times and likely shared some of their beliefs.217218 This connection likely dates back even further to interactions between Pre-Germanic and Celtic languages, as shown by some cognates that do not exhibit the effects of Grimm's Law, which is usually dated to around 500 BCE.217

Historian John T. Koch argues that Pre-Germanic and Pre-Celtic languages remained in close contact from 1800 to between 1200 and 900 BCE, partly due to the long-distance metal trade with Scandinavia. A few of these terms can be identified as Celtic loanwords that entered the Germanic languages between 900 and 500 BCE, after the sound changes in Proto-Celtic had been completed, but before the emergence of Grimm's Law in Proto-Germanic.217

Baltic and Slavic

The relationship between Proto-Germanic speakers and those of Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic is unclear.219220 Edgar Polomé writes that the "acceptable lexical evidence exclusively shared by the Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic tribes is hardly sufficient to draw any definite conclusions as to their close relationship".220 Frederik Kortlandt argues that because a substantial portion of the vocabulary shared between Germanic and Balto-Slavic was borrowed after the Baltic–Slavic split, Germanic and Proto-Balto-Slavic could never have been contiguous Indo-European dialects. According to him, the earliest contacts between Germanic and Baltic-Slavic speakers must date to the early Middle Ages, and Germanic loanwords in Baltic must have passed through a Slavic intermediary.221

Some religious materials have been found to be shared between Germanic, Slavic and Celtic. For instance, the Proto-Germanic word for werewolf (*wira-wulfaz, 'man-wolf') appears to be semantically related to the Proto-Slavic and Proto-Celtic equivalents *vьlko-dlakь ('wolf-haired') and *wiro-kū ('man-dog'), respectively.135222 The motif of the Wild Hunt is also shared amongst the Germans, Celts, and Slavs.223

Shared lexicon

Germanic Celtic Balto-Slavic Meaning Sources
*Ala-fader *Olo-(p)atīr – 'All-Father' (an epithet) 6
*alh(a)z – Lith. alkas 'holy grove, temple' 159160
*Austrōn – Lith. Aušrinė a goddess connected with the dawn 7
*dwas- *dwosyos Lith. dvasià 'incubus, daemon, spirit, soul, ghost' 224105
*draugaz *drougo- – 'sprit, phantom' 104
*elhja- ol(c)c – 'bad, evil' 6
*ferg(w)unjō *ferkunyo Slav. *per(g)ynja 'wooded mountains' (realm of *Perkwunos) 144145
*Haihaz *kaiko- – 'one-eyed, blind in one eye' (an epithet) 6
*har(u)gaz *karnom – 'holy stone, funerary monument' 104
*kunjaz – Lith. žinià 'omen, knowledge, magic' 183
*lēk(i)jaz *lēagis – 'healer' 184105
*lubjan *lubi- – '(medicinal) herb' 186105
*marōn *morā Slav. *morà 'nightly spirit, bad dream' 122225
*meldunjaz *meldo- – 'lightning, hammer of the thunder-god' 226
*nemedaz *nemetom – 'sacred grove, sanctuary' 191
*rūnō *rūnā – 'secret, magic, mystery' 227
*saidaz *soytos Lith. saitas 'magic, charm, soothsaying' 105
*skaldaz ? *sketlo- – 'poet' 197
*skōhsla- *skāhslo- – 'demon, supernatural being, evil spirit' 104
*Þun(a)raz *Tonaros – From PIE *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder') 73228
*wehtiz – Slav. *vektь 'creature' 229
*wīhaz – Lith. viẽkas 'holy, divine' 211212
*wōðaz *wātis – 'seer, sooth-sayer; ecstatic, possessed, (divinely) inspired' 816
See also

See also

Notes

Notes

  1. de Vries 1962, pp. 94–95, 609.
  2. Orchard 1997, p. 35.
  3. Salus & Taylor 1969, p. 80. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSalusTaylor1969 (help)
  4. Lindow 2002, p. 102.
  5. Koch 2020, p. 139.
  6. Koch 2020, p. 140.
  7. Kroonen 2013, p. 43.
  8. Sermon 2008, p. 338-339.
  9. West 2007, pp. 217–218.
  10. de Vries 1962, p. 20.
  11. Falluomini 2017.
  12. Simek 1984, pp. 31–32.
  13. Orel 2003, p. 33.
  14. de Vries 1962, p. 24.
  15. Orel 2003, pp. 33–34.
  16. Simek 1996, p. 26. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek1996 (help)
  17. Simek 1993, p. 59-60, 7, 139.
  18. Simek 1993, p. 7.
  19. Simek 1993, p. 139.
  20. Simek 1984, p. 11.
  21. Rosenfeld & Hauck 1984.
  22. de Vries 1962, p. 142.
  23. Orel 2003, p. 112.
  24. Kroonen 2013, p. 153.
  25. Kroonen 2013, pp. 152–153.
  26. Orel 2003, p. 114.
  27. Kroonen 2013, p. 155.
  28. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Friday, n. and adv.
  29. Orel 2003, p. 118.
  30. Orel 2003, p. 129.
  31. de Vries 1962, p. 159.
  32. Orel 2003, pp. 129, 147.
  33. Rübekeil 2002, p. 603.
  34. Simek 1993, pp. 100–101.
  35. Orel 2003, p. 151.
  36. de Vries 1962, p. 239.
  37. Simek 1984, p. 185.
  38. de Vries 1957, pp. 321–322.
  39. Orel 2003, p. 191.
  40. Simek 1984, pp. 185, 198.
  41. de Vries 1962, p. 678.
  42. Lehmann 1986, p. 100.
  43. de Vries 1962, pp. 286, 679.
  44. Lehmann 1986, p. 244.
  45. Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 367.
  46. Orel 2003, p. 270.
  47. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. moon, n.1
  48. Kroonen 2013, p. 365.
  49. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Monday, n. and adv.
  50. Puhvel 1987, p. 205.
  51. Simek 1993, p. 230.
  52. Simek & 2007 [1993], p. 230. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007_[1993] (help)
  53. Magnússon 1989, p. 671. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMagnússon1989 (help)
  54. Hopkins 2012, p. 39.
  55. Orel 2003, p. 385.
  56. Magnússon 1989, pp. 463–464. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMagnússon1989 (help)
  57. Orel 2003, pp. 361, 385, 387.
  58. Kroonen 2013, pp. 463–464.
  59. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Sunday, n. and adv.
  60. Orel 2003, p. 408.
  61. Lehmann 1986, p. 352.
  62. Kroonen 2013, p. 519.
  63. Simek 1984, pp. 413, 420.
  64. West 2007, p. 167 n. 8.
  65. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Tuesday, n. and adv.
  66. de Vries 1957, pp. 363–364.
  67. Simek 1984, p. 418.
  68. Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 129.
  69. de Vries 1962, p. 602.
  70. Simek 1984, p. 251.
  71. de Vries 1957, pp. 11–14.
  72. Delamarre 2003, p. 290. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDelamarre2003 (help)
  73. Matasović 2009, p. 384.
  74. Jackson 2002, p. 61-102.
  75. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Thursday, n. and adv.
  76. Kroonen 2013, p. 274.
  77. Puhvel 1987, p. 63.
  78. Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 129–130.
  79. Orel 2003, p. 469.
  80. West 2007, p. 137.
  81. Kroonen 2013, p. 592.
  82. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Wednesday, n. and adv.
  83. Koch, John. "Altgermanische und altkeltische Theonyme: Die epigraphische Evidenz aus der Kontaktzone. Ein Handbuch zu ihrer Etymologie [review]". In: Journal of Indo-European Studies; Washington Vol. 50, Ed. 1/2, (Spring/Summer 2022): 291-296 [294].
  84. Orel 2003, p. 474.
  85. de Vries 1962, p. 633.
  86. Kroonen 2013, p. 599.
  87. Orel 2003, p. 475.
  88. Kroonen 2013, p. 600.
  89. Orel 2003, p. 13.
  90. Burgundian's status as an East Germanic language remains unclear.
  91. Oxford English Dictionary 2024 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary2024 (help), s.v. elf (n.1 & adj.)
  92. Orel 2003, p. 15.
  93. Orel 2003, p. 21.
  94. de Vries 1962, p. 16; Simek 1984, p. 25; Orel 2003, p. 21; Kroonen 2013, p. 30
  95. Orel 2003, p. 20–21.
  96. Kroonen 2013, p. 30.
  97. Oxford English Dictionary 2024 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary2024 (help), s.v. Aesir (n.)
  98. Orel 2003, p. 72.
  99. Kroonen 2013, p. 96.
  100. Kroonen 2013, pp. 114–115.
  101. Kroonen 2013, pp. 96, 114.
  102. Simek 1993, p. 171.
  103. de Vries 1962, p. 77.
  104. Koch 2020, p. 142.
  105. Koch 2020, p. 144.
  106. Orel 2003, p. 81.
  107. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. dwarf, n. and adj.
  108. Kroonen 2013, p. 112.
  109. Oxford English Dictionary 2024 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary2024 (help), s.v. dwarf (n. & adj.)
  110. Orel 2003, p. 86.
  111. Orel 2003, p. 262.
  112. Kroonen 2013, p. 163.
  113. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. ghost, n.
  114. Kroonen 2013, p. 193.
  115. Ringe, Donald. 2017. A Linguistic History of English. Volume I. From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. 2nd edition. OUP. P.325, 361
  116. Orel 2003, p. 145.
  117. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. god, n. and int.
  118. Kroonen 2013, pp. 193–194.
  119. Orel 2003, pp. 144–145.
  120. Orel 2003, p. 241.
  121. Oxford English Dictionary 2021 s.v. mare, n.2.
  122. Derksen 2007, p. 324.
  123. Derksen 2007, pp. 302, 324.
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  136. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. werewolf, n.
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  165. Orel 2003, p. 50.
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  197. Koch 2020, p. 137.
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  199. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. scold, n.
  200. Orel 2003, p. 386.
  201. de Vries 1962, p. 562.
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  209. de Vries 1962, p. 603.
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  226. Koch 2020, p. 143.
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References

References