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Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene

This article is a list of biological species, subspecies, and evolutionary significant units that are known to have become extinct during the Holocene, the current geologic epoch, ordered by their known or approximate date of disappearance from oldest to most recent.

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This article is a list of biological species, subspecies, and evolutionary significant units that are known to have become extinct during the Holocene, the current geologic epoch, ordered by their known or approximate date of disappearance from oldest to most recent.

The Holocene is considered to have started with the Holocene glacial retreat around 11650 years Before Present (c. 9700 BC). It is characterized by a general trend towards global warming, the expansion of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) to all emerged land masses, the appearance of agriculture and animal husbandry, and a reduction in global biodiversity. The latter, dubbed the sixth mass extinction in Earth history, is largely attributed to increased human population and activity, and may have started already during the preceding Pleistocene epoch with the demise of the Pleistocene megafauna.

The following list is incomplete by necessity, since the majority of extinctions are thought to be undocumented, and for many others there isn't a definitive, widely accepted last, or most recent record. According to the species-area theory, the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year.1

10th millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Picture
10050-9550 BC2 Giant beaver Castoroides ohioensis North America
100010-9907 BC Morenelaphus brachyceros Temperate South America
9948-9306 BC3 North American glyptodont Glyptotherium cylindricum Florida and Texas to northeastern Brazil
9880-8280 BC4 Harlan's ground sloth Paramylodon harlani Southwestern United States and Mexico
9830-9530 BC4 Shrub-ox Euceratherium collinum Southwestern North America
9700-6200 BC5 Dire wolf Aenocyon dirus North America and western South America
Fraternal horse Equus fraternus Eastern North America
Large-headed llama Hemiauchenia macrocephala North and Central America
source ↗
Long-nosed peccary Mylohyus fossilis6 Eastern United States
9600 BC7 Cèdres tahr Hemitragus cedrensis France and the Iberian Peninsula
9540-9420 BC4 Jefferson's ground sloth Megalonyx jeffersonii North America
9531-9196 BC8 Sardinian dhole Cynotherium sardous Corsica and Sardinia
c. 9515 BC9 Southeastern giant tortoise Hesperotestudo crassiscutata Southern United States
source ↗
9405 BC10 American lion Panthera atrox British Columbia to Central America
9381-9281 BC11 Macrauchenia patachonica Southwestern South America
9350 BC Eurasian cave lion7 Panthera spelaea Northern Eurasia and Beringia
Toronto subway deer12 Torontoceros hypogaeus Toronto, Canada
9230-8930 BC4 Stag-moose Cervalces scotti Eastern United States
9130-9030 BC4 Pygmy mammoth Mammuthus exilis Channel Islands of California, United States
9117-8793 BC3 Cuvier's gomphothere Cuvieronius hyodon Central America, northern and central Andes13
9110-9030 BC14 Valgipes bucklandi Brazil
9110-8950 BC4 Woodland muskox Bootherium bombifrons North America
c. 9050 BC9 Wilson's tortoise Hesperotestudo wilsoni Southwestern United States
Ryukyu tortoise Manouria oyamai Ryukyu, Japan
9050 BC15 Cypriot genet Genetta plesictoides Cyprus
9050-8050 BC15 Miyako roe deer Capreolus tokunagai Miyako Island, Ryukyu, Japan
Miyako long-tailed rat Diplothrix miyakoensis

9th millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
8995-8845 BC4 Giant short-faced bear Arctodus simus North America Competition with the grizzly bear.16
8990-8690 BC4 Flat-headed peccary Platygonus compressus North America Possibly vegetation changes induced by climate change and competition with the American black bear.16
8965-8875 BC4 Mexican horse Equus conversidens Western North America Hunting.17
8902-8638 BC18 Damaliscus hypsodon Kenya and Tanzania Undetermined.
8725-8175 BC4 Shasta ground sloth Nothrotheriops shastensis Southwestern United States Hunting.19
8697-8355 BC Xibalbaonyx oviceps Quintana Roo, Mexico Hunting.3
8640-8500 BC4 Ancient bison Bison antiquus North America Possibly hybridisation with western bison resulting in modern American bison.20
8301-7190 BC21 Giant pika Ochotona whartoni Northern North America;
Eastern Siberia? 		Undetermined.
8170-7840 BC4 American camel Camelops hesternus Western North America Hunting.16
8120-7980 BC Giant Cape zebra Equus capensis Southern Africa Reduction of grasslands after the end of the Last Glacial Period.18A
8080-7700 BC4 Columbian mammoth Mammuthus columbi Northern Mexico, western and southern United States Hunting.16
8050-7650 BC23 Woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis Northern Eurasia Shrinking of the mammoth steppe due to warmer and wetter climate conditions.24
8050 BC or less25 Hipposideros besaoka Northern coast of Madagascar Undetermined.
Triaenops goodmani

8th millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
c. 7950 BC26 Antifer ultra River Plate and central Chile Undetermined.
7830-7430 BC21 Catonyx cuvieri Eastern South America
source ↗
7615-7305 BC4 North American sabertooth cat Smilodon fatalis Southern North America and northern South America Prey loss.16
7600-6245 BC27B East Asian ostrich Pachystruthio anderssoni29 Tuva, Transbaikalia, Mongolia, and northern China30 to the Yellow River31 Undetermined.
7330-6250 BC C Asian straight-tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon namadicus South and east Asia
7160-6760 BC21 Scelidodon chiliensis Western South America33
7129-6239 BC34 South American sabertooth cat Smilodon populator Eastern South America Competition with human hunters.35
7110-6810 BC4 American mastodon Mammut americanum North America Undetermined.
7050-6550 BC36 European dhole Cuon alpinus europaeus Central and southern Europe, and the Caucasus Undetermined.
7043-6507 BC21 Cuban pauraque Siphonorhis daiquiri Cuba Undetermined.
7043-6503 BC21 Giant ghost-faced bat Mormoops magna Cuba and Hispaniola37

7th millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
6810-6650 BC21 Notiomastodon platensisD South America39 Undetermined.
Glossotherium robustum
6660-4880 BC21 Equus neogeus
Glyptodon clavipes Eastern South America
Hoplophorus euphractus Eastern Brazil
Propraopus sulcatus Eastern South America40
6442-6210 BC18 Giant hartebeest Megalotragus priscus Southern Africa;
Eastern Africa? 		Reduction of grasslands after the end of the Last Glacial Period.18
6389-6060 BC41 Eutatus seguini Northern Argentina and Uruguay42 Undetermined.
source ↗

6th millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
5740-5500 BC Bond's springbok Antidorcas bondi Southern Africa Reduction of grasslands after the end of the Last Glacial Period.18
5660-5540 BC43 Scelidotherium leptocephalum Southern South America Hunting?16
5641–5075 BC8 Praemegaceros cazioti Corsica and Sardinia Undetermined.
5477-4170 BC34 Panamerican ground sloth Eremotherium laurillardi44 Southern United States to Brazil
5474-5339 BC45 Haitian cave rail Nesotrochis steganinos Hispaniola
5295-4848 BC Ibiza rail Rallus eivissensis Ibiza, Spain Undetermined, but presumably a result of human colonization.46
Ibiza dwarf viper Vipera latastei ebusitana
5270-4310 BC47 Giant ground sloth Megatherium americanum Temperate South America and the Andes Hunting.35
5226-5156 BC4 Haitian pine forest sloth Neocnus dousman Hispaniola Undetermined.
5120 BC48 Neosclerocalyptus paskoensis Southern South America
5050-4050 BC49 Cuban cursorial owl Ornimegalonyx oteroi Cuba
source ↗
Cuban titan-hawk Buteogallus borrasi
Cuban giant tortoise Chelonoidis cubensis
Cuban sloth Acratocnus antillensis
5030 BC50 Cave hyena Crocuta spelaea Europe, Central and Western Asia

5th millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
4855-4733 BC North African horse Equus algericus Maghreb Aridification.18
4840-4690 BC Majorcan giant dormouse Hypnomys morpheus Mallorca, Spain Possibly disease spread by introduced rodents.51
4765-4445 BC47E Club-tailed glyptodont41 Doedicurus clavicaudatus South American Pampas Hunting and habitat loss.
4691-4059 BC Megaceroides algericus Northern Maghreb Possibly habitat fragmentation.53
4650-1450 BC21 Toxodont Toxodon platensis South America Undetermined.
4570 BC - 130 CE54 Jamaican caracara Caracara tellustris Jamaica
4514-4244 BC21 Muridae indet. sp. 1 Morotai, Indonesia
Muridae indet. sp. 2
4360-4280 BCE Unnamed South African caprine ?Makapania sp. South African mountains Reduction of grasslands after the end of the Last Glacial Period.18 Restoration of Makapania broomi
4240-1529 BC21 Halmahera bandicoot Peramelidae indet. Halmahera, Indonesia Undetermined.21
c. 4000 BC North African zebra Equus mauritanicus North Africa Aridification.18
Equus melkiensisF Northern Algeria and Morocco18

4th millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
3979-2640 BC56 Yukon horse Equus lambei Northwestern North America Undetermined.
3628-3377 BCG Steppe bison Bison priscus Northern Eurasia and North America
3570-3630 BC62 Malagasy crowned eagle Stephanoaetus mahery Central and southern Madagascar Possibly natural aridification or habitat degradation and prey loss caused by human activity.63
3540-3355 BC64 Kauaʻi mole duck Talpanas lippa Kauaʻi, Hawaii, United States Undetermined.
3500-775 BC21 Flores cave rat Spelaeomys florensis Flores, Indonesia
3340-2890 BC65 Babakotia radofilai Northern coast of Madagascar
source ↗
3290-2730 BC66 Matthew's ground sloth Parocnus brownii Cuba Hunting.67
3060-2470 BC Giant African buffalo Syncerus antiquus Africa and the Arabian Peninsula68 Aridification and competition with domestic cattle for water and pastures.21
3050 BC15 Buka Island mosaic-tailed rat Melomys spechti Buka Island, Papua New Guinea Undetermined.
Buka Island solomys Solomys spriggsarum
3050-550 BC Don hare Lepus timidus tanaiticus Russia Replacement by the mountain hare.69
3040-1840 BCH Tilos dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon tiliensis Tilos, Greece Undetermined.
3030-2690 BC Balearic giant shrew Nesiotites hidalgo Gymnesian Islands, Spain Possibly disease spread by introduced rodents.51
source ↗

3rd millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
2830-2470 BC Balearic cave goat Myotragus balearicus Gymnesian Islands, Spain Likely vegetation changes related to aridification or human activity.7172
2550 BC Bennu heron Ardea bennuides Arabian Peninsula Wetland degradation.21
2550-1550 BC21 Niue night heron Nycticorax kalavikai Niue Undetermined.
2480-2400 BC73 Lesser Haitian ground sloth Neocnus comes Hispaniola
2320 BC7 Irish elk Megaloceros giganteus Europe and southern Siberia
source ↗
2281-1402 BC34 Palaeolama major North and east South America Hunting.35
2280-2240 BC74 Cuban giant sloth Megalocnus rodens Cuba Undetermined.
2267-1543 BC34 Xenorhinotherium bahiense Northeastern South America
2200 BC Indian aurochs Bos primigenius namadicus Indian subcontinent Undetermined.I
2134-1408 BC21J Chatham raven Corvus moriorum Chatham Islands, New Zealand Undetermined.
2050-50 BC Sierra Madre giant cloud rat76 Carpomys dakal Luzon, Philippines
Sierra Madre bushy-tailed cloud rat76 Crateromys ballik
Niviventer sp.15 Ishigaki Island, Japan
2035-1735 BC66 Hispaniola monkey Antillothrix bernensis Hispaniola

2nd millennium BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
1935-1700 BC Raksasamys tikusbesar Sumba Island, Indonesia Undetermined.15
1900-1600 BC Noel's barn owl Tyto noeli Cuba, Jamaica, and Bermuda Undetermined.77
1795-1675 BC78 Woolly mammoth Mammuthus primigenius Northern Eurasia and North America Hunting79 and habitat loss due to climate change.24
1750-1650 BC80 Short-horned water buffalo Bubalus mephistopheles South to northeastern China81 Undetermined.
1738-1500 BC21 Puerto Rican ground sloth Acratocnus odontrigonus Puerto Rico
1738-1385 BC21 Christensen's pademelon Thylogale christenseni New Guinea Predation by introduced dingoes.82
1666-1506 BC Ovodov horse Equus ovodovi North and East Asia Undetermined.83
c. 1640 BC East Asian aurochs Bos primigenius sinensis Southern Siberia to northeastern China Hunting, habitat loss, and capture of females to supplement domestic taurine cattle herds introduced from the west.K
c. 1500 BC Puerto Rican flower bat Phyllonycteris major Puerto Rico and Antigua Undetermined.87
Leeward Islands curlytail Leiocephalus cuneus Antigua and Barbuda
1400-1190 BC Greater Azores bullfinch Pyrrhula crassa Graciosa Island, Azores, Portugal Human settlement.88
1159-790 BC Dune shearwater Puffinus holeae Canary Islands, Spain;
mainland Portugal (Pleistocene) 		Predation by introduced house mice.89
1120-840 BC New Caledonian giant scrubfowl Sylviornis neocaledoniae Grande Terre and Isle of Pines, New Caledonia Hunting.90
c. 1050 BC9 Mona tortoise Chelonoidis monensis Mona Island of Puerto Rico Undetermined.
1050 BC15 Hooijer's giant rat Hooijeromys nusantenggara Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia
Mekosuchus kalpokasi Efate, Vanuatu Hunting.91
Verhoeven's giant tree rat Papagomys theodorverhoeveni Flores, Indonesia Undetermined.
1050-850 BC92 Lini's megapode Mwalau walterlinii Efate, Vanuatu
1021-806 BCE93 Madeiran quail Coturnix lignorum Madeira, Portugal

1st millennium BC

10th-6th century BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
c. 950 BC Noble scrubfowl Megavitiornis altirostris Fiji Hunting.94
Fiji giant iguana Lapitiguana impensa
source ↗
Volia athollandersoni
900-750 BC Tongan tooth-billed pigeon Didunculus placopedetes Tonga Undetermined.21
855-730 BC Shutler's fruit pigeon Ducula shutleri
c. 850 BC Lakeba pigeon Ducula lakeba Lakeba and Aiwa, Fiji
850-600 BC Tongan giant pigeon Tongoenas burleyi Tonga Hunting.95
source ↗
840-740 BC96 Consumed scrubfowl Megapodius alimentum Tonga and Fiji Hunting, egg harvesting, and predation by introduced animals.63
821-171 BC Balsam shrew Crocidura balsamifera Nile gallery forests, Egypt Habitat destruction.21
c. 810 BC9 ?Meiolania damelipi Vanuatu and Viti Levu, Fiji Hunting.97
800-700 BC Syrian elephant Elephas maximus asurus Mesopotamia Hunting and habitat loss due to agriculture and aridification.L
source ↗
790-410 BC MacPhee's shrew tenrec Microgale macpheei Southeastern Madagascar Aridification.99
787-320 BC Jamaican ibis Xenicibis xympithecus Jamaica Undetermined.21
source ↗
770-400 BC Law's diving-goose Chendytes lawi Coastal California and Oregon, United States Hunting.100
source ↗
748-406 BC101 European wild ass Equus hydruntinus Southern Europe and Southwest Asia; Northern Europe (Pleistocene) Hunting and habitat fragmentation after the end of the Last Glacial Period.102
744-202 BC Kauaʻi stilt-owl Grallistrix auceps Kauaʻi, Hawaii, United States Undetermined.21
701-119 BCM Chatham coot Fulica chathamensis Chatham Islands, New Zealand Probably hunting and predation by introduced mammals.63
source ↗
550-50 BC21 David's imperial pigeon Ducula david Ouvéa Island, New Caledonia Hunting.63
511-407 BC Plate-toothed giant hutia Elasmodontomys obliquus Puerto Rico Undetermined.103

5th-1st century BC

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
450 BC Mesocapromys kraglievichi Cuba Undetermined.103
412-199 BC65 Archaeoindris fontoynontii Central Madagascar Hunting.104
404 BC105 Wild dromedary camel Camelus dromedarius Arabian Peninsula Desertification, hunting, and capture to replenish domestic herds. Domestic and feral descendants survive.106
400-231 BC Tenerife giant rat Canariomys bravoi Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain Habitat alteration by introduced goats, sheep, pigs, and house mice.107
c. 350 BC Tongan giant iguana Brachylophus gibbonsi Tonga and Fiji Hunting.96108
source ↗
348 BC - 283 BC Sardinian giant shrew Asoriculus similisN Corsica and Sardinia109 Introduced black rats and human-induced habitat loss.110
Sardinian pika Prolagus sardus Hunting, predation and competition with introduced mammals.111O
Hensel's field mouse Rhagamys orthodon Introduced black rats and human-induced habitat loss.110
Tyrrhenian vole Tyrrhenicola henseli
320-220 BCP Lena horse Equus lenensis Northern Siberia Hunting.112
c. 240 BCQ Imperial gibbon Nomascus imperialis Chongqing114 and possibly Shaanxi, China Possibly capture as pets and deforestation.115
source ↗
170 BC - 370 CE116 Maui flightless ibis Apteribis brevis Maui, Hawaii, United States Undetermined.
130 BC Gran Canaria giant rat Canariomys tamarani Gran Canaria, Canary Islands Hunting or predation by introduced dogs?117
110 BC - 130 BC65 Ancient coua Coua primaeva Madagascar Undetermined.
62 BC - 87 CE Alor Island giant rat Alormys aplini Alor Island, Indonesia Aridification and deforestation.118
50 BC15 Buhler's coryphomys Coryphomys buehleri Timor Undetermined.
Timor giant rat Coryphomys musseri
source ↗
49 BC - 125 CE São Miguel scops owl Otus frutuosoi São Miguel Island, Azores, Portugal Introduced predators?119
after 30 BC120 North African aurochs Bos primigenius africanus North Africa Aridification. Domestic descendants survive in captivity.18
10 BC121 Greater Cuban nesophontes Nesophontes major Cuba Undetermined.
Lesser falcate-winged bat Phyllops vetus Cuba and Juventud

1st millennium CE

1st–5th centuries

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
1-1000122 Eyles's harrier Circus teauteensis New Zealand Prey loss and habitat alteration.63123
North Island goose124 Cnemiornis gracilis North Island, New Zealand Probably hunting.63
54-68 Silphium Ferula or Thapsia sp. Cyrenaica coast, Libya Aridification, overgrazing, and overharvesting.125
54-222 Milimonggamys juliae Sumba Island, Indonesia Undetermined.
80126 Halmahera wallaby Dorcopsis sp. Halmahera, Indonesia Predation by introduced dogs.82
86-42821 Powerful goshawk Accipiter efficax New Caledonia Undetermined.
Gracile goshawk Accipiter quartus
Kanaka pigeon Caloenas canacorum New Caledonia and Tonga; Vanuatu and Fiji? Probably hunting.63
Pile-builder megapode127 Megapodius molistructor New Caledonia and Tonga Undetermined.
New Caledonian ground dove Pampusana longitarsus New Caledonia
New Caledonian gallinule128 Porphyrio kukwiedei
140-180R Mekosuchus inexpectatus Grande Terre and Isle of Pines, New Caledonia Hunting.91
source ↗
210129 Giant fossa Cryptoprocta spelaea Madagascar Undetermined.
220130 Western bison Bison occidentalis Alaska and Yukon
220-320 Waitomo frog Leiopelma waitomoensis North Island, New Zealand Predation by polynesian rats.131
245-42965 Mesopropithecus globiceps Southwestern Madagascar Hunting and aridification.104
290-430 Bahaman caracara Caracara creightoni Cuba and Bahamas Undetermined.77
c. 300 Atlas wild ass Equus africanus atlanticus North Africa Undetermined. Domestic descendants survive in captivity.132
300-120021 Marquesas cuckoo-dove Macropygia heana Nuku Hiva and Ua Huka, Marquesas Islands Undetermined.
347-53521 New Ireland forest rat Rattus sanila New Ireland, Papua New Guinea
before 370133 North African elephant Loxodonta africana pharaoensis Northwest Africa Hunting and aridification.134S
428-61865 Hypogeomys australis Central and southern Madagascar Undetermined.
439-473136 Jamaican monkey Xenothrix mcgregori Jamaica
440-63921 Oʻahu moa-nalo Thambetochen xanion Oahu, Hawaii, United States
source ↗
448-657T Chatham duck Anas chathamica Chatham Islands, New Zealand Hunting?21

6th–10th centuries

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
530-590 Cuban spectacled owl Pulsatrix arredondoi Cuba Undetermined.77
530-86065 Malagasy shelduck Alopochen sirabensis Madagascar Possibly hunting and aridification.63
source ↗
c. 531 Meiolania mackayi New Caledonia Hunting.137
535-87641 Hadropithecus stenognathus Central and southern Madagascar Hunting and aridification.104
586-670 Voay robustus Madagascar Possibly overexploitation of eggs for consumption, environmental changes (natural or caused by human activity), and competition with the Nile crocodile.138
c. 600 Ua Huka rail Gallirallus gracilitibia Ua Huka, Marquesas Islands Human settlement.139
600-76541 Mesopropithecus pithecoides Central Madagascar Hunting and aridification.104
650-78065 Archaeolemur majori Madagascar
650-869 Small O'ahu crake Porzana ziegleri Oahu, Hawaii, United States Undetermined.21
664-773 Hildebrandt's elephant bird Aepyornis hildebrandti Central Madagascar Deforestation.140
source ↗
666-857141 Geocapromys caymanensis Cayman Islands Undetermined.
Cayman Islands nesophontes Nesophontes hemicingulus
670-836 Lemerle's dwarf hippopotamus Hippopotamus lemerlei Southwestern Madagascar142 Deforestation,140 hunting, competition with, and changes to vegetation caused by livestock.104
680-880140 Lesser elephant bird Mullerornis modestus Central and southern Madagascar Hunting, aridification,104 and deforestation.140
source ↗
668-881 Astrochelys rogerbouri Central and southern Madagascar Undetermined.143
687-880 Madagascar dwarf hippopotamus Hippopotamus madagascariensis Northwestern and central Madagascar142 Deforestation,140 hunting, competition with, and changes to vegetation caused by livestock.104
700-115021 Huahine starling Aplonis diluvialis Huahine, Society Islands, French Polynesia Undetermined.
Huahine gull Chroicocephalus utunui
Huahine rail Gallirallus storrsolsoni Possibly hunting and predation by introduced animals.63
Huahine cuckoo-dove Macropygia arevarevauupa Undetermined.
Huahine swamphen Porphyrio mcnabi Possibly hunting and introduced predators.63
772-870 Insular cave rat Heteropsomys insulans Puerto Rico Undetermined.103
810-1025 Sinoto's lorikeet Vini sinotoi Marquesas and Society Islands, French Polynesia Hunting.144
865-965 Malagasy aardvark Plesiorycteropus madagascariensis Central and southern Madagascar Undetermined.16
source ↗
c. 8849 Grandidier's giant tortoise Aldabrachelys grandidieri Madagascar Hunting and aridification.104
source ↗
890-99041 Giant ruffed lemur Pachylemur insignis Southwestern Madagascar
source ↗
c. 900-1000 Synemporion keana Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui, Hawaii, United States Hunting and predation by introduced rodents.145
900-1150 Giant aye-aye Daubentonia robusta Southern Madagascar Hunting, expansion of grasses and deforestation caused by domestic cattle and goat grazing.104
c. 950 Giant island deer mouse Peromyscus nesodytes Channel Islands of California, United States Possibly habitat loss through overgrazing and erosion.146
Nuku Hiva rail Gallirallus epulare Nuku Hiva, Marquesas Islands Undetermined.139
Tahuata rail Gallirallus roletti Tahuata, Marquesas Islands
950-1350 Ducula tihonireasini Kamaka, Gambier Islands, French Polynesia
980-1170 Megaladapis grandidieri Madagascar Hunting and vegetation changes caused by livestock.104
c. 986-1425 Mangaia rail Gallirallus ripleyi Mangaia, Cook Islands Hunting, habitat alteration, and predation by introduced rats, dogs, and pigs.147
Mangaia crake Porzana rua

2nd millennium CE

11th-12th century

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Pictures
c. 1000 North Island adzebill Aptornis otidiformis North Island, New Zealand Hunting and predation by introduced Polynesian rats.63
1000-1200148 Conquered lorikeet Vini vidivici Marquesas, Society, and Cook Islands Possibly predation by Polynesian rats.63
1000-160021 Henderson archaic pigeon Bountyphaps obsoleta Henderson Island, Pitcairn Undetermined.
Henderson imperial pigeon Ducula harrisoni Probably hunting and predation by introduced animals.63
Henderson ground dove Pampusana leonpascoi Undetermined.
1015-1147103 Puerto Rican nesophontes Nesophontes edithae Puerto Rico
1015-115593 Cape Verde quail Coturnix centensis São Vicente, Cape Verde
1040-138063U Giant elephant bird Aepyornis maximus Southern Madagascar Hunting, competition with, and changes to vegetation caused by livestock.104
source ↗
1046-138021 Nēnē-nui Branta hylobadistes Oahu, Hawaii, United States Probably hunting or introduced predators.63
1047-128065 Archaeolemur edwardsi Central Madagascar150 Hunting and changes to vegetation caused by livestock.104
1057-137521 Maui Nui moa-nalo Thambetochen chauliodous Molokai and Maui, Hawaii, United States Undetermined.
source ↗
1057-144021 Maui stilt-owl Grallistrix erdmani Maui, Hawaii, United States
1059-1401 New Zealand swan Cygnus sumnerensis New Zealand Hunting.21
source ↗
1104-1672 Azorean little gadfly petrel Pterodroma zinorum Azores Islands, Portugal Probably human activity and introduced mammals.151
1170152 Bahaman tortoise Chelonoidis alburyorum Bahamas Undetermined.
1173-138521 Barbuda giant rice rat Megalomys audreyae Barbuda
source ↗
1175-1295153 Atalaye nesophontes Nesophontes hypomicrus Hispaniola
1183 New Zealand owlet-nightjar Aegotheles novaezealandiae New Zealand Predation by introduced Polynesian rats.154

13th-14th century

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Causes Picture
c. 1200 Ua Huka Booby Papasula abbotti costelloi Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia Hunting and possibly also deforestation.63
1200-1600 Chatham kaka Nestor chathamensis Chatham Islands, New Zealand Probably hunting, deforestation, and predation by introduced Polynesian rats.63
1206-142741 Megaladapis madagascariensis Madagascar Hunting.104
1230-1315155 Abrupt giant tortoise Aldabrachelys abrupta Hunting and aridification.104
1234-1445122 South Island adzebill Aptornis defossor South Island, New Zealand Hunting and predation by introduced Polynesian rats.63
source ↗
1250-1650 Rapa Nui Palm Paschalococos disperta Easter Island, Chile Deforestation and predation of nuts by introduced rats.156
1265-1400 St. Michel nesophontes Nesophontes paramicrus Hispaniola Undetermined.153
1270-1380 Hispaniola woodcock Scolopax brachycarpa Hispaniola Undetermined.157
1270-1395158 Lava mouse Malpaisomys insularis Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, Canary Islands Possibly disease spread by introduced rats.159
1270-1475 Lava shearwater Puffinus olsoni Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, Canary Islands Predation by introduced black rats and cats.160
1278-1415 Mantell's moa Pachyornis geranoides North Island, New Zealand Hunting.21161
source ↗
1286-1390 North Island giant moa Dinornis novaezelandiae
source ↗
1292-1630 Chinese gharial Hanyusuchus sinensis South China and Hainan Extermination campaign.162
1294-1438 Heavy-footed moa Pachyornis elephantopus Eastern South Island, New Zealand Hunting.163
1295-143015321 Haitian nesophontes Nesophontes zamicrus Hispaniola Undetermined.
c. 130063 Tubuai rail Hypotaenidia steadmani Tubuai, Austral Islands, French Polynesia
1300-1500 Malagasy sheldgoose Centrornis majori Central Madagascar Hunting and aridification.164
source ↗
After 1300 Chatham penguin165 Eudyptes warhami New Zealand Hunting.166163
Dwarf yellow-eyed penguin Megadyptes antipodes richdalei Chatham Islands, New Zealand167
1300-1400 Malagasy lapwing Vanellus madagascariensis Southwestern Madagascar Aridification.63
1300-1422 Upland moa Megalapteryx didinus South Island, New Zealand Hunting.168
source ↗
1300-1430 Megaladapis edwardsi Madagascar Hunting and vegetation changes caused by livestock.104
source ↗
1300-1800 Eua rail Hypotaenidia vekamatolu Eua, Tonga Undetermined.63
1310-141066 Western Cuban nesophontes Nesophontes micrus Cuba Undetermined.
1310-1420 Bush moa Anomalopteryx didiformis New Zealand Hunting.163169
source ↗
1320-1350169 Eastern moa Emeus crassus South Island, New Zealand
Haast's eagle170 Hieraaetus moorei Deforestation and loss of prey. Possibly also predation of nests by introduced pigs and rats.63
1320-1630 Southern sloth lemur Palaeopropithecus ingens Southwestern Madagascar Hunting and vegetation changes caused by livestock.104
source ↗
1347-1529 Waitaha penguin Megadyptes antipodes waitaha Coastal South Island, New Zealand Hunting.171
1350 Scarlett's shearwater Puffinus spelaeus Western South Island, New Zealand Predation by Polynesian rats.160
source ↗
1375-1610 Kauaʻi palila Loxioides kikuchi Kauaʻi, Hawaii, United States Human settlement and farming.172
1380-1500173 Giant Hawaii goose Branta rhuax Hawaiʻi, Hawaii, United States Probably hunting.63
1390-1470 Great ground dove Pampusana nui French Polynesia and Cook Islands Undetermined.21
1396-1442 Crested moa Pachyornis australis Subalpine South Island, New Zealand Hunting.163
source ↗

15th-16th century

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Declared extinct Causes Picture
1400-1450 Pico rail Rallus montivagorum Pico Island, Açores, Portugal Undetermined.63
1400-1500 Tenerife giant lizard Gallotia goliath Tenerife and La Palma, Canary Islands Hunting.174
1425-1660 Kauaʻi finch Telespiza persecutrix Kauaʻi and Oahu, Hawaii, United States Undetermined.21
1451-1952163
(1558–1728)V 		South Island giant moa Dinornis robustus South Island, New Zealand Hunting.163
1454-1626W Dusicyon avus Argentina and Uruguay 2015 (IUCN) Possibly climate change, hunting, and competition with domestic dogs.175
1460-1660 Dwarf thick-knee Burhinus nanus Bahamas Undetermined.176
1464-1637163
(1542–1618)X 		Broad-billed moa Euryapteryx curtus North, South, and Stewart Island of New Zealand Hunting.163
c. 1500 Rēkohu shelduck Tadorna rekohu Chatham Islands, New Zealand Human settlement.177
1500-1600 Finsch's duck Chenonetta finschi New Zealand 2014 (IUCN) Hunting and predation by introduced Polynesian rats.178
South Island goose63 Cnemiornis calcitrans South Island, New Zealand Probably hunting.179
1503 Vespucci's giant rat Noronhomys vespucii Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil 2008 (IUCN) Undetermined.180
1503-157821 Puerto Rican hutia Isolobodon portoricensis Hispaniola and Gonâve;
Introduced to Puerto Rico, Mona, and U.S. Virgin Islands 		1994 (IUCN) Possibly predation by introduced black rats.181
1520-195021 Galápagos giant rat Megaoryzomys curioi Santa Cruz, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador 2008 (IUCN) Possibly introduced predators.182
1536-1546183 Samaná hutia Plagiodontia ipnaeum Hispaniola 2021 (IUCN) Predation by introduced rodents.183
1550-167066 Hispaniolan edible rat Brotomys voratus Hispaniola 1994 (IUCN) Introduced rats.184
1555 Ascension night heron Nycticorax olsoni Ascension Island Probably predation by introduced cats and rats.63
1585185 Cayman Islands hutia Capromys pilorides lewisi Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman, Cayman Islands Possibly hunting, introduced predators, and habitat loss caused by introduced ungulates.141

17th century

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Declared extinct Causes Picture
1600-1700 Hodgens's waterhen Tribonyx hodgenorum New Zealand 2014 (IUCN) Hunting and predation by Polynesian rats.186
1601 Stout-legged duck cf. Anas bernieri Rodrigues Undetermined.164
1602 Mauritius white-throated rail Dryolimnas chekei187 Mauritius 1638 Hunting and predation by introduced mammals.63
1603 Bermuda hawk Bermuteo avivorus Bermuda 2014 (IUCN) Possibly hunting and predation by introduced feral pigs and other animals.188
source ↗
1609-1610 Bermuda saw-whet owl Aegolius gradyi 1623
2014 (IUCN) 		Habitat destruction and introduced predators.63
Bermuda towhee Pipilio naufragus Undetermined.63
1610 Bermuda night heron Nyctanassa carcinocatactes 2014 (IUCN) Possibly hunting and introduced predators.189
source ↗
1623 Bermuda flicker Colaptes oceanicus 2014 (IUCN) Probably predation by introduced cats.63
1627Y Eurasian aurochs Bos primigenius primigenius Mid-latitude Eurasia 2008 (IUCN) Hunting, competition with, and diseases from domestic cattle. Domestic descendants survive worldwide, including feral populations.192
c. 1640193 Saint Helena rail Aphanocrex podarces Saint Helena 1988 (IUCN) Probably hunting194 and predation by introduced cats, rats, and other mammals.193
Olson's petrel Bulweria bifax Hunting and introduced predators?195
Saint Helena cuckoo Nannococcyx psix Possibly deforestation.193
Saint Helena petrel Pterodroma rupinarum Probably deforestation and introduced mammals.63
Saint Helena hoopoe Upupa antaios Possibly hunting and introduced predators.196
source ↗
Saint Helena crake Zapornia astrictocarpus Probably introduced predators.197
Before 1650 Chatham Islands swan Cygnus sumnerensis chathamicus Chatham Islands, New Zealand Hunting.198
c. 1650 Markham's frog Leiopelma markhami South Island, New Zealand Predation by polynesian rats.131
1656 Ascension crake Mundia elpenor Ascension Island 1988 (IUCN) Possibly introduction of rats and cats, although it is not attested by the time they arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries.199
1670-195065Z Larger Malagasy hippopotamus Hippopotamus laloumena Eastern Madagascar Increased human and cattle pressure after the introduction of prickly pear farming.104 Its specific separation from the common hippopotamus has been questioned.200
1671-1672 Réunion blue pigeon Alectroenas sp. Réunion 1704 Probably hunting and predation by introduced cats.63
Réunion sheldgoose Alopochen kervazoi 1710
1988 (IUCN) 		Hunting and habitat destruction.201
Réunion kestrel Falco duboisi 2004 (IUCN) Undetermined.202
Réunion fody Foudia delloni 2016 (IUCN) Possibly deforestation or predation by introduced rats.63
source ↗
Réunion parrot ?Necropsittacus borbonicus Undetermined.63
1673-1675 Broad-billed parrot Lophopsittacus mauritianus Mauritius 1693
1988 (IUCN) 		Hunting.203
1674 Réunion rail Dryolimnas augusti Réunion 2014 (IUCN) Probably hunting and introduced rats and cats.204
Réunion night heron Nycticorax duboisi 1988 (IUCN) Hunting.205
1675-1755 Giant vampire bat Desmodus draculae Eastern South America;
Central America (Pleistocene)206 		Undetermined.207
1688 Dodo Raphus cucullatus Mauritius 1988 (IUCN) Hunting.208209
before 1690 Rodrigues blue pigeon Alectroenas payandeei Rodrigues Undetermined.63
1693 Mauritius sheldgoose Alopochen mauritiana Mauritius 1698
1988 (IUCN) 		Hunting.208
Red rail Aphanapteryx bonasia 1988 (IUCN) Hunting and predation by introduced cats.210
Mascarene coot211 Fulica newtonii Mauritius and Réunion Hunting.212
source ↗
Mauritius night heron Nycticorax mauritianus Mauritius Probably hunting.213
1696 Amsterdam wigeon Mareca marecula Amsterdam Island, French Southern and Antarctic Lands 1874
1988 (IUCN) 		Hunting and predation by introduced rats.63

18th century

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Declared extinct Causes Picture
1700-1800 Réunion scops owl Otus grucheti Réunion Deforestation.63
1704 Réunion pigeon Nesoenas duboisi 1988 (IUCN) Predation by introduced black rats and cats.63
1705 Mascarene reed cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus nanus Mauritius and Réunion Probably hunting and predation by introduced cats.63
1710 Mascarene tealAA Anas theodori Mauritius and Réunion Hunting and possibly predation by introduced cats.63
Réunion pochard cf. Aythya innotata Réunion Undetermined.164
1724 Guadeloupe parakeet Psittacara labati Guadeloupe 1988 (IUCN) Probably hunting.214
source ↗
1725-1726 Rodrigues petrel Pterodroma sp. Rodrigues Predation by introduced cats and rats.63
1726 Rodrigues rail Erythromachus leguati 1988 (IUCN) Hunting.215
Rodrigues owl Otus murivorus Probably hunting, deforestation, and predation by introduced animals.216
Rodrigues starling Necropsar rodericanus 1761
1988 (IUCN) 		Undetermined.217
Rodrigues pigeon Nesoenas rodericanus 1761
1988 (IUCN) 		Probably predation by introduced black rats.218
Rodrigues night heron Nycticorax megacephalus 1761
1988 (IUCN) 		Hunting.219
source ↗
c. 1730 Mauritius wood pigeon Columba thiriouxi Mauritius 2014 (IUCN) Hunting, predation by introduced black rats, and deforestation.63
source ↗
Mauritius turtle dove Nesoenas cicur Hunting, predation by introduced mammals, and deforestation.63
Réunion swamphen Porphyrio caerulescens Réunion 1988 (IUCN) Hunting.220
source ↗
1732 Réunion parakeet Psittacula eques eques 1732 Hunting and deforestation.221
c. 1735-18449AB Saddle-backed Mauritius giant tortoise Cylindraspis inepta Mauritius 1994 (IUCN) Possibly hunting and introduced predators and competitors.222223
Domed Mauritius giant tortoise Cylindraspis triserrata
source ↗
1741-1768 Steller's sea cow Hydrodamalis gigas Bering Sea; Northern Pacific coasts from Japan to Baja California (Pleistocene) 1768
1986 (IUCN) 		Hunting and reduction of kelp as a result of sea otter hunting, which caused proliferation of kelp-eating sea urchins.224
1742AC Lesser Antillean macaw Ara guadeloupensis Guadeloupe Undetermined.63
source ↗
1746 Corynanthe brachythyrsus Cameroon 1998 (IUCN) Undetermined.225
1759 Mauritius grey parrot Lophopsittacus bensoni Mauritius and Réunion 1988 (IUCN) Hunting.22663
1761 Rodrigues parrot Necropsittacus rodricanus Rodrigues 1988 (IUCN) Hunting.227
source ↗
Rodrigues solitaire Pezophaps solitaria 1778
1988 (IUCN) 		Hunting and predation by introduced cats.228
1762-1790 Carpathian wisentAD Bison bonasus hungarorum Carpathian Mountains, Eastern Europe
1763 Réunion ibis Threskiornis solitarius Réunion 1988 (IUCN) Hunting.23063
1770 Ancient Polydamas swallowtail Battus polydamas antiquus Antigua 2018 Undetermined.231
1771 Saint Helena ebonyAE Trochetiopsis melanoxylon Saint Helena lowlands 1998 (IUCN) Logging and predation by introduced goats.232
source ↗
1773-1774 Raiatea parakeet Cyanoramphus ulietanus Raiatea, Society Islands, French Polynesia 1988 (IUCN) Possibly deforestation, hunting, and predation by introduced species.233
source ↗
1774 Tanna ground dove Alopecoenas ferrugineus Tanna, Vanuatu Hunting?234
Raiatea starling ?Aplonis ulietensis Raiatea, Society Islands, French Polynesia 1850
2016 (IUCN) 		Possibly predation by introduced rats.235
source ↗
1775 Seychelles purple swamphen Porphyrio sp. Mahé, Seychelles Hunting, deforestation, and predation by introduced mammals.63
1777 Tongatapu rail Hypotaenidia hypoleucus Tongatapu, Tonga Predation by introduced dogs.63
Moorea sandpiper Prosobonia ellisi Moorea, Society Islands, French Polynesia 1988 (IUCN) Predation by introduced rats.236237
Tahiti sandpiper Prosobonia leucoptera Tahiti, Society Islands, French Polynesia
1778 Christmas sandpiper Prosobonia cancellata Kiritimati, Kiribati 2014 (IUCN) Probably predation by introduced cats.63
source ↗
1779 Martinique amazon Amazona martinicana Martinique 1988 (IUCN) Probably hunting.238
source ↗
Guadeloupe amazon Amazona violacea Guadeloupe Hunting.239
source ↗
1784 Tahiti crake Zapornia nigra Tahiti, Society Islands, French Polynesia Possibly introduced predators.240
1790 White swamphen Porphyrio albus Lord Howe Island, Australia 1834
1988 (IUCN) 		Hunting.241
source ↗
1793 Oceanic eclectus parrot Eclectus infectus Tonga and Vanuatu; Fiji? 2014 (IUCN) Probably hunting and predation by introduced mammals.242
source ↗
Vava'u rail Hypotaenidia vavauensis Vava'u, Tonga Possibly habitat destruction and introduced predators.63
1799-1800 Bluebuck Hippotragus leucophaeus Overberg;
South Africa (Pleistocene) 		1986 (IUCN)243 Vegetation change and disruption of migration routes after the Last Glacial Period, competition with domestic cattle, overhunting, and further habitat loss due to agriculture.18

19th century

20th century

3rd millennium CE

21st century

Last record Common name Binomial name Former range Declared extinct Causes Picture
2000 Pyrenean ibexAF Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica Pyrenees;245
Cantabrian Mountains?246 		2000 (IUCN)247 Hunting, competition for pastures and diseases from exotic and domestic ungulates.248249
source ↗
Beaver pond marstonia Marstonia castor Lake Blackshear, Georgia, United States 2017 Pollution and urban development.250
White-chested white-eyeAG Zosterops albogularis Norfolk Island, Australia 2024 (IUCN) Deforestation, competition with the silvereye (introduced in 1904), and predation by rats (introduced in the 1940s).63
source ↗
2001 Glaucous macaw Anodorhynchus glaucus Border area of Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay Deforestation for agriculture and livestock grazing, particularly of the Yatay palm in which it fed. Possibly also hunting and capture for the exotic pet trade.251
source ↗
Slender-billed curlew Numenius tenuirostris Western Eurasia and northern Africa 2024 (IUCN) Hunting and habitat destruction.63
Pernambuco pygmy owl Glaucidium mooreorum Pernambuco, Brazil Habitat destruction.252
Giant Atlas barbel Labeobarbus reinii Oued Ksob and Tensift Rivers, Morocco 2022 (IUCN) Undetermined.253
Plectostoma sciaphilum Bukit Panching, Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia 2014 (IUCN) Habitat destruction caused by limestone quarrying.254
2002 Chinese river dolphinAH Lipotes vexillifer Middle and lower Yangtze, China 2007255 Fishing, habitat destruction, and vessel strikes.256
Polynesian tree snail Partula labrusca Raiatea, Society Islands, French Polynesia 2007 (IUCN) Predation by introduced rosy wolfsnails.257
2003 Osgood's Ethiopian toad Altiphrynoides osgoodi South-central Ethiopian mountains Habitat degradation.258
Saint Helena oliveAI Nesiota elliptica Saint Helena 2004 (IUCN) Deforestation for fuel and timber, and use of the land for plantations of New Zealand flax, leading to inbreeding depression and fungal infections from reduced numbers.259
Chinese paddlefish Psephurus gladius Yangtze and Yellow River basins, China 2018 (IUCN) Overfishing and construction of the Gezhouba Dam blocking the anadromous spawning migration260261
2004 Po'ouli Melamprosops phaeosoma Eastern Maui, Hawaii, United States 2017 (IUCN) Introduced avian malaria and predators.262
Cozumel thrasher Toxostoma guttatum Cozumel, Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico Hurricanes Roxanne, Emily, and Wilma.263
2005 Cahaba pebblesnail Clappia cahabensis Cahaba River, Alabama, United States 2021 (IUCN) Water pollution.264
source ↗
Dypsis brittiana Tsaramain’Andro, Makira Natural Park, Madagascar Human exploitation.265
before 2006 Western black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis longipes South Sudan to Nigerian-Niger border area 2011 (IUCN) Hunting.266
2007 South Island kōkakoAJ Callaeas cinereus South Island, New Zealand Habitat destruction from logging and grazing ungulates, and predation by introduced black rats, brush-tailed possums, and stoats.268
source ↗
Cryptic Treehunter Cichlocolaptes mazarbarnetti Northeastern Brazil 2019 (IUCN) Extensive habitat loss due to logging and sugar cane production.269
La Palma giant lizardAK Gallotia auaritae La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain Undetermined.270
Mendelson's water frog Telmatobius mendelsoni Cusco and Ayacucho, Peru Chytridiomycosis.271
2008 Lindog Barbodes lindog Lake Lanao, Mindanao, Philippines Predation by introduced tank goby and ornate sleeper.272
Barada spring minnow Pseudophoxinus syriacus Barada stream, Lebanon and Syria Pollution and draining of the river due to water substraction.273
2009 Bramble Cay melomys Melomys rubicola Bramble Cay, Australia 2015 (IUCN)274 Sea level rise as a consequence of global warming.275
Christmas Island pipistrelle Pipistrellus murrayi Christmas Island, Australia 2017 (IUCN) Undetermined.276
2010 Vietnamese rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus South China and Indochina 2011 (IUCN) Hunting.277
Lake Oku puddle frog Phrynobatrachus njiomock Kilum-Ijim forest, Mount Oku, Cameroon Possibly chytridiomycosis.278
2011 Alagoas foliage-gleaner Philydor novaesi Alagoas and Pernambuco, Brazil 2019 (IUCN) Deforestation.63
2012 Pinta Island tortoiseAL Chelonoidis abingdonii Pinta, Galápagos Islands, Ecuador 2012 (IUCN)279 Hunting and overgrazing by introduced goats. Hybrid descendants exist in other Galapagos islands, as a result of human intervention.280
Parras pupfish Cyprinodon latifasciatus Laguna de Mayrán basin, Coahuila, Mexico Undetermined.281
2014 Christmas Island forest skinkAM Emoia nativitatis Christmas Island, Australia 2017 (IUCN) Habitat loss to mining and predation by introduced Indian wolf snake and yellow crazy ant.282
source ↗
Catarina pupfishAN Megupsilon aporus El Potosí spring, Galeana, Nuevo León, Mexico 2018 (IUCN) Predation by introduced Florida bass and habitat loss from water extraction. The captive population was wiped out by mycobacteriosis.283
2015-2018 Mollinedia myriantha Macaé de Cima Environmental Protection Area, Nova Friburgo, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Habitat fragmentation and degradation caused by construction and other human activity.284
2016 Captain Cook's bean snail Partula faba Raiatea and Tahaʻa, Society Islands, French Polynesia 2016 Predation by introduced rosy wolfsnails.285
Rabbs' fringe-limbed treefrogAO Ecnomiohyla rabborum El Valle de Antón, Panama Chytridiomycosis.287
2019AP Oahu tree snail Achatinella apexfulva Oahu, Hawaii, United States 2019 Predation by introduced rosy wolfsnails.288
See also

See also

Notes

Notes

  1. Ancient DNA studies indicate that the giant Cape zebra is not a separate species, but a distinct lineage of the plains zebra (E. quagga).22
  2. Attributed to Struthio asiaticus in this source, but this name should be limited to remains from Pleistocene India.28
  3. Date obtained from carbonaceous clay near Palaeoloxodon remains rather than bone.32
  4. A datation to 4170-4050 BC is uncalibrated and the remains could be older.38
  5. A datation to 3023-2809 BCE is considered dubious.52
  6. Possible synonym of Equus africanus atlanticus.55
  7. In Yukon.57 Remains of either B. priscus or B. bonasus were dated in the Angara River basin to 2550-2440 BC,58 and a small bison persisted in the Baikal region until the 7th to 10th century AD (considered B. priscus by Boeskorov59 and B. bonasus by Sipko60). A date of 1130-1060 BC near the Oyat river is not calibrated and the remains could be older.61
  8. This dating is regarded as "tentative". Claims of even later survival to 1470-1445 BCE are based on interpretations of a painting from the Egyptian Tomb of Rekhmire apparently depicting an adult dwarf elephant.70
  9. Domestic descendants survive in captivity and as feral populations.75
  10. Survival to 1350 CE reported by Turvey is not confirmed.
  11. Traditionally considered the same as B. p. primigenius on morphological grounds, but revealed to be genetically distinct. Domestic hybrid descendants survive in China, particularly in Tibet, Chamdo, and Yushu.84 It is likely that many remains from northern China that have been identified as bison85 or domestic cattle actually belong to aurochs and that it survived for longer than assumed. The anonymous author of the Classic of Poetry (11th-7th century BCE) seems aware of the aurochs's existence.86
  12. It was suggested that the Syrian elephant was introduced by humans in Mesopotamia, which would not make it a valid subspecies.98
  13. Survival to c. 1350 CE mentioned by Turvey not confirmed.
  14. A. corsicanus was originally applied to remains from Corsica and A. similis to Sardinia. It was later recognized that A. corsicanus existed in the early Pleistocene of both islands, and A. similis in the late Pleistocene-Holocene, as seen in Moncunill-Sole et al. (2016).
  15. Claimed survival until 1774 CE in Tavolara Island is based on the mention of 'giant burrow-making rats' by Francesco Cetti.
  16. It is unconfirmed if remains of Equus sp. found in Bolshoy Baranov Cape and dated to 701-900 CE belong to this taxon (Boeskorov, 2006).
  17. Historical records mention gibbons being caught near Chang'an until the 10th century, and living in Shaanxi province until the 18th century.113
  18. Indirectly dated (Mead et al., 2002).
  19. Some experts don't recognize the existence of separate subspecies in Loxodonta africana.135
  20. Survival until Polynesian arrival c. 1350 not confirmed (Turvey, 2009).
  21. A commonly cited 1658 account by Étienne de Flacourt could as well be of Mullerornis, or based on second-hand reports of fossil eggs.149
  22. "307±85 yr BP (95.4% AD 1451-1952)" (Rawlence & Cooper, 2013)
  23. In Tierra del Fuego. Last dated in the continent in 1232-1397 (Prevosti et al., 2015).
  24. "370±38yr BP (95.4% AD 1464-1637)" (Rawlence & Cooper, 2013)
  25. In Poland. Unconfirmed remains and sightings might extend survival in Bulgaria and Russia until the 18th century.190191
  26. A 1976 sighting is unconfirmed (Burney et al., 2004).
  27. In Réunion. Last recorded on Mauritius in 1700.164
  28. Extinct in the main island by 1735, but living tortoises of unknown species were found in Île Ronde, Mauritius in 1844 (Cheke & Hume, 2009).
  29. A 1779 painting by Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton could depict this species in captivity (Hume, 2017).
  30. Dubious subspecies, based on a single neurocranium that was destroyed in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.229
  31. Unconfirmed reports in 1816 (IUCN).
  32. A clone of the last individual was successfully produced in 2003, but died several minutes after birth due to a lung defect.244
  33. Unconfirmed sighting in 2005 (Hume).
  34. In captivity. Unconfirmed wild sighting in 2018. https://www.theworldofchinese.com/2019/02/the-search-for-the-river-goddess/
  35. In captivity. Last wild individual died in 1994 (IUCN).
  36. An unconfirmed sighting and recorded call took place in 2021.267
  37. Possible sightings. Otherwise known from subfossil remains (IUCN).
  38. In captivity. Last individual captured from the wild in 1972 (IUCN).
  39. In captivity. Last seen in the wild in 2010 (IUCN).
  40. In captivity. Last recorded in the wild before 1994 (González et al.).
  41. In captivity.286 Call last heard in the wild in 2008 (IUCN).
  42. In captivity. Last captured in the wild in 1997 (Bowler, 2019).
References

References

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  10. Stuart, A. J., & Lister, A. M. (2011). Extinction chronology of the cave lion Panthera spelaea. Quaternary Science Reviews, 30(17-18), 2329-2340.
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