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Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

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Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

  • Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
    • Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
  • Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
  • Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
  • Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes cf. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
  • Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
  • Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
  • Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
  • Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
  • Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
  • Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
    • Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
    • Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
  • Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
    • Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
    • Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
  • Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
  • Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
  • Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming1

Language overview

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language
Paradigm count
Concurrent
Constraints
Dataflow
Declarative
Distributed
Functional
Metaprogramming
Generic
Imperative
Logic
Reflection
Object-oriented
Pipelines
Visual
Rule-based
 Other
Ada23456 5 Yesa 1 N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
ALF 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a
AmigaE
 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
APL 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA
 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
C++ 7 (15) Yes789 Library10 Library1112 Library1314 Library1516 Yes Yes17 Yesa 3 Yes Library1819 Library20 Yesa 2 Library21 N/a Library22 Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C# 8 (15) Yes Library2324 Librarya 4 Yes25 Library2627 Yesa 5 Yes2829 Yes Yes Library30 Yes Yesa 2 Librarya 6 Library31 Library32 Reactivea 7
ChucK
 3 Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Claire 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Clojure 5 Yes3334 N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes35 Yes36 N/a N/a Library37 N/a N/a Yes38 N/a N/a Multiple dispatch,39 Agents40
Common Lisp 7 (14) Library41 Library42 Library43 Yes44 Library45 Yes Yes Yes46 Yes Library47 Yes Yesa 8a 248 Library49 Library50 Library51 Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,52 Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl 5 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a Yesa 3 Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Curry 4 Yes Yes N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a
D (version 2.0)5354 7 Yesa 9 N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes55a 3 Yesa 3 Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Delphi 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yesa 3 Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Dylan
 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
E 3 Yes N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
ECMAScript5657 (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript) 4 (5) Partiala 10a 11 N/a N/a Library5859 N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes Yesa 12 Library6061 N/a N/a Reactive,a 1362 event drivena 14a 15
Erlang 3 Yes N/a N/a Yes Yes Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a
Elixir 4 Yes N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a
Elm 6 Yes N/a Yes Yes N/a Yes (pure)a 16 N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Reactive
F# 7 (8) Yesa 9 N/a Librarya 4 Yes N/a Yes N/a Yes Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a Reactivea 7
Fortran 4 (5) Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a Yesa 16 N/a Yesa 17 N/a N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a Array (multi-dimensional)
Go 4 Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a
Haskell 8 (15) Yes Library63 Library64 Yes Library65 Yes (lazy) (pure)a 16 Yes66 Yes Yes Library67 N/a Partiala 18 Yes Yes Library68 Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io 4 Yesa 9 N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 12 N/a N/a N/a N/a
J
 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Java 6 Yes Library69 Library70 N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Julia 9 (17) Yes Library71 Library7273 Library74 Yes Yes (eager) Yes Yes Yes Library75 Yes Partiala 19 Yes N/a Library7677 Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy78 and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin 8 Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes Yes Yes N/a Yes Yes Yes N/a N/a N/a
LabVIEW 4 Yes N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes N/a N/a
Lava 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a Yes N/a N/a
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA) 9 Yes N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes Yes N/a Yes Yes Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a Yes N/a
Lua
 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 12 N/a N/a N/a N/a
MATLAB 6 (10) Toolbox79 Toolbox80 Yes81 N/a Toolbox82 N/a Yes83 Yes84 N/a N/a Yes85 Yes86 N/a Yes87 N/a Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle 7 Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes Yes Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Object Pascal 4 Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
OCaml 4 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Oz 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes N/a N/a Yes Yes N/a Yesa 2 Yes N/a Yes N/a
Perl
 8 (9) Yes88 N/a Yes89 N/a N/a Yes Yes N/a Yes N/a Yesa 2 Yesa 2 Yes N/a N/a N/a
PHP909192 4 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Poplog 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a
Prograph 3 N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a Yes N/a N/a
Python 5 (10) Library9394 Library95 N/a N/a Library96 Yes Yes9798 Yes99100 Yes Library101 Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a Structured
R 4 (6) Library102 N/a N/a N/a Library103 Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes Yes Yes104 N/a N/a Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket 10 Yes105 Yes106 Yes107 N/a Yes108 Yes Yes N/a Yes Yes Yes Yes N/a N/a N/a Lazy109
Raku 10 Yes110 Library111 Yes112 N/a Library113 Yes Yes114 Yes115 Yes N/a Yes116 Yes117 Yes N/a N/a Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a
Ruby 5 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes N/a Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha) 6 Yesa 9 N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes118119 Yes120 Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather
 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Scala121122 9 Yesa 9 N/a Yesa 20 Yes N/a Yes Yes Yes Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Simula
 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a
SISAL 3 Yes N/a Yes N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a
Spreadsheets 2 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a
Swift 7 Yes N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes Yes Yes Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension
 3 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes123 N/a N/a Yes N/a N/a Yesa 12124 N/a N/a N/a N/a
Visual Basic .NET 6 (7) Yes N/a Librarya 4 N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 N/a N/a N/a Reactivea 7
Windows PowerShell 6 N/a N/a N/a N/a N/a Yes N/a Yes Yes N/a Yes Yesa 2 Yes N/a N/a N/a
Wolfram Language & Mathematica 13125 (14) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes126 N/a Yes Knowledge Based
See also

See also

Notes

Notes

  1. rendezvous and monitor-like based
  2. class-based
  3. template metaprogramming
  4. using TPL Dataflow
  5. only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
  6. using TPL Dataflow
  7. using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
  8. multiple dispatch, method combinations
  9. actor programming
  10. promises, native extensions
  11. using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
  12. Prototype-based
  13. using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
  14. in Node.js via their events module
  15. in browsers via their native EventTarget API
  16. purely functional
  17. parameterized classes
  18. immutable
  19. Uses structs with function polymorphism and multiple dispatch
  20. Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine
Citations

Citations

  1. Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (Facebook. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. S2CID 62509261.
  2. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
  3. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
  4. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
  5. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
  6. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
  7. Thread support
  8. Atomics support
  9. Memory model
  10. Gecode
  11. SystemC
  12. Boost.Iostreams
  13. Boolinq
  14. "AraRat" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2019-09-15.
  15. OpenMPI
  16. Boost.MPI
  17. Boost.MPL
  18. LC++
  19. Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine
  20. Reflect Library
  21. N3534
  22. Boost.Spirit
  23. Decider
  24. Zen
  25. LINQ
  26. Orleans
  27. WCF
  28. Reflection
  29. Source generators
  30. Guan
  31. NetPrints
  32. RulesEngine
  33. Clojure - Concurrent Programming
  34. Clojure - core.async
  35. Clojure - Functional Programming
  36. Clojure - Macros
  37. Clojure - core.logic
  38. Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
  39. Multimethods and Hierarchies
  40. Agents and Asynchronous Actions
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  42. [1] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
  43. [2] dataflow extension
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  45. [4] MPI, etc via language extensions
  46. template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
  47. [5] [6] [7] Prolog implemented as a language extension
  48. Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
  49. implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
  50. - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
  51. [8] rule-based programming extension
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  53. D Language Feature Table
  54. Phobos std.algorithm
  55. D language String Mixins
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  77. "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". GitHub. 2017-08-03.
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  88. interpreter based threads
  89. Higher Order Perl
  90. PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
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  92. PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
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  106. The Rosette Guide
  107. FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
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  109. Lazy Racket
  110. Channels and other mechanisms
  111. "Problem Solver module".
  112. Feed operator
  113. https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
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  126. External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.
References

References

  • Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.