Article · Wikipedia archive · Last revised Jun 26, 2026

Coropuna

Coropuna is a dormant volcano located in the Andes mountains of southeast-central Peru. The upper reaches of the compound volcano consist of several perennially snowbound conical summits, lending it the name Nevado Coropuna in Spanish. The complex extends over an area of 240 square kilometres (93 sq mi) and its highest summit reaches an altitude of 6,377 metres (20,922 ft) above sea level. This makes the Coropuna complex the third-highest of Peru. Its thick ice cap is the most extensive in Earth's tropical zone, with several outlet glaciers stretching out to lower altitudes. Below an elevation of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft), there are various vegetation belts which include trees, peat bogs, grasses and also agricultural areas and pastures.

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Coropuna
Nevado Coropuna
A snow-covered mountain with two hump-like summits rising above an unvegetated landscape with a lake
Highest point
Elevation6,377 m (20,922 ft)1
Coordinates15°33′S 72°39′W / 15.550°S 72.650°W / -15.550; -72.6502
Naming
EtymologyEtymology
Native nameQhuru Puna (Quechua)
English translation
"Golden mountain", "cold, snowy" or "cut off at the top"
Geography
Coropuna
Parent rangeCordillera Occidental, Peruvian Andes
Geology
Rock ages
Stratovolcano complex
Rock typeGeology
Volcanic beltAndean Volcanic Belt
Last eruption1,100 ± 100 or 700 ± 200 years ago
Climbing
First ascentpossibly prehistoric

Coropuna is a dormant volcano located in the Andes mountains of southeast-central Peru. The upper reaches of the compound volcano consist of several perennially snowbound conical summits, lending it the name Nevado Coropuna in Spanish. The complex extends over an area of 240 square kilometres (93 sq mi) and its highest summit reaches an altitude of 6,377 metres (20,922 ft) above sea level. This makes the Coropuna complex the third-highest of Peru. Its thick ice cap is the most extensive in Earth's tropical zone, with several outlet glaciers stretching out to lower altitudes. Below an elevation of 5,000 metres (16,000 ft), there are various vegetation belts which include trees, peat bogs, grasses and also agricultural areas and pastures.

The Coropuna complex consists of several stratovolcanoes. These are composed chiefly of ignimbritesa and lava flows on a basement formed by Middle Miocene ignimbrites and lava flows. The Coropuna complex has been active for at least five million years, with the bulk of the current cone having been formed during the Quaternary.b Coropuna has had two or three Holocene eruptions 2,100 ± 200 and either 1,100 ± 100 or 700 ± 200 years ago which generated lava flows, plus an additional eruption which may have taken place some 6,000 years ago. Current activity occurs exclusively in the form of hot springs.

Coropuna is located 150 kilometres (93 mi) northwest of the city of Arequipa. People have lived on the slopes of Coropuna for millennia. The mountain was regarded as sacred by the Inca, and several archaeological sites have been discovered there, including the Inca sites of Maucallacta and Acchaymarca. The mountain was considered one of the most important Inca religious sites in their realm; human sacrifices were performed on its slopes, Coropuna forms part of many local legends and the mountain is worshiped to the present day.

The ice cap of Coropuna, which during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) had expanded to over 500 km2 (190 sq mi), has been in retreat since at least 1850. Estimates published in 2018 imply that the ice cap will persist until about 2120. The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people relying upon its watershed, and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be hazardous to surrounding populations. Because of this, the Peruvian geological agency, INGEMMET, monitors Coropuna and has published a hazard map for the volcano.

Name and etymology

In Quechua, puna means "plateau", and coro is a common component of toponyms such as with Coro Coro, Bolivia, its etymology is unclear5 but may relate to Puquina language coro "round" but may also refer to "world".6 The name may mean Qoripuna, "Puna of Gold",7 "golden mountain",8 "cold, snowy" or "cut off at the top".9 Ernst Wilhelm Middendorf believed it was originally the name of the high plateau around the mountain.10 The name is also spelled Qhuru Puna11 or Coropona.12 The mountain is also called Nevado Coropuna; "Nevado" is the Spanish word for "snowy".13 There is another volcano in the Andahua volcanic field which has the same name, but is completely separate.14

Geography and geomorphology

Coropuna lies in the Andes of Peru,15 on the border between the Castilla and Condesuyos Provinces16 of the Arequipa Department.1617 Towns around the volcano belong to the Chuquibamba, Machaguay, Pampacolca and Viraco Districts.18 The volcano can be reached on paved roads through the town of Andahua, either from Arequipa or through Aplao from the Pan-American Highway.19 Roads also pass along the northern and western sides of the volcano.20

Regional

The Andes stretch along the western coast of South America from Tierra del Fuego northwards to Venezuela, forming the longest mountain chain in the world.21 More regionally, the volcano is in the Cordillera Ampato, a mountain range which lies at an average of 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the Pacific coastline,22 and contains nearly one hundred glaciers.23

Coropuna is in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes,1524 which contains 44 stratovolcanoes25 – including many of the world's highest24 – and several glaciated volcanoes.26 Besides Coropuna, some of the latter are Sara Sara, Solimana, Mismi, Ampato, Hualca Hualca, Sabancaya, Chachani, Misti, Ubinas, Huaynaputina, Tutupaca, Yucamane and Casiri.2728 Also found nearby are Neogene-age calderas.27 Sixteen volcanoes in Peru are active or potentially active.29

There is no habitation on Coropuna above 5,200 metres (17,100 ft),30 but numerous villages dot the lower slopes.c Agriculture and animal husbandry are the most common economic activities;32 there are copper and gold mines as well.33 The city of Arequipa lies 150 km (93 mi) to the southeast.15

Local

General outline

An elongated snow-covered ridge rises from a dark landscape with valleys.
Coropuna seen from the south in 1988 source ↗

Seen from above, Coropuna has a pear-shaped outline34 and is a 20 km (12 mi) east–west ridge17 that features four summits that are separated by broad saddles.1535 In addition, there is another summit north of the east–west trend.1 A 5,558 m (18,235 ft) high subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha lies east of Coropuna;36 it is an extinct37 stratovolcano.38 Coropuna covers a surface area of 240 square kilometres (93 sq mi)39 and its various main summits rise about three kilometres (1.9 mi) above the surrounding plateau.26

The volcano is formed from alternating layers of ignimbrite and lava,34 and consists of coalesced stratovolcanoes40 and seven separate coulees.41 Ice cover makes discerning its structure difficult,42 but about42 six separate peaks394344 as well as six not readily recognisable summit craters have been counted.3134 Additional lava domes form a southeastward trending line on the southwestern side of the volcano31 and dikes crop out close to Lake Pallarcocha.31 Coropuna overlies the margin of a buried caldera.45

The higher elevations of Coropuna consist of an ice cap and glaciated terrain39 but old lava flows with gentle slopes46 and blocky lava crop out from underneath the ice.25 Regions of hydrothermally altered rocks, lava flows, pyroclastic flows and areas covered by volcanic ash occur all around the mountain.31 Glacial activity has eroded these volcanic rocks, carving valleys into them or removing them altogether.47 This process created U-shaped valleys such as Buenavista, Cospanja and Tuilaqui on the southern flank, and glacial valleys such as Chaque, Mapa Mayo, Río Blanco, Torcom and Ullulo on the northern slopes.48 Glacial valleys of Coropuna are up to 300 m (980 ft) deep and seven km (4.3 mi) long.49

There are several collapse scarps on the mountain, especially around its central sector.38 A sector collapse took place on the southwestern flank and formed a landslide deposit as well as a horseshoe-shaped valley that was later filled by glaciers.49 Also on the southern side, mud-water flow deposits have been found in the Capiza River valley and appear to relate to Coropuna;50 at least eight such debris flows have been identified.51 Lahars (mudflows) have reached the Colca River valley.52 Lahars are dangerous phenomena owing to their high speed and density, causing large scale destruction and fatalities,50 and can be generated both by volcanic and meteorological processes.53 Such lahars occurred in 2016 and 2023, causing damage to agricultural land and irrigation infrastructure.54

Lakes, rivers and groundwater

A barren, rock-strewn terrain with two ice-covered mountains in the background; to the left lies a blue lake and to the right a scarp.
Coropuna seen from Lake Pallacocha source ↗

Lakes lie on the flanks of the volcano.55 These include Lake Pallarcocha on the southwestern flank on formerly glaciated terrain,56 Laguna Pucaylla on Coropuna's northeastern side and Laguna Caracara on the southeastern side. A number of streams and rivers originate on the mountain. Clockwise around Coropuna, these include Quebrada Chauqui-Huayco, Rio Amayani on the northern side, Quebrada Chinchina/Infernillo, Quebrada Jollpa, Quebrada Caspanja with the lake Laguna Caracara, Quebrada Buena Vista, Quebrada Tuallqui, Rio Testane on the southern flank, Rio de Huayllaura on the southwestern flank, Quebrada del Apacheta,20 Quebrada Sigue Chico57 and Quebrada Sepulturayoc on the western flank.20 The Rio Blanco and Rio Amayani eventually form the Rio Arma,58 while the Rio Capiza discharges water from Coropuna to the Colca River.59 During the winter dry season,2 most of these rivers do not carry substantial discharge.60

The volcano is situated on a drainage divide. Most of Coropuna drains to the Rio Arma west of the volcano,61 a tributary of the Ocoña River, while to the east, the Colca River is part of the Majes River watershed.47 An endorheic area that receives meltwater from the volcano also exists northeast from Coropuna, on Pampa Pucaylla62 where the lake of the same name lies.20

Glacial meltwater seldom forms streams. The Quebrada Ullulo on the northern side is the largest such meltwater stream.35 Glacial input is more significant to groundwater; especially on the northern flank glacial meltwater makes up a large fraction of local river discharge.63 The andesites of Coropuna and its glacial sediments host aquifers that convey glacial meltwater to springs and rivers. Some aquifers on the eastern side are influenced by sulfur-containing rocks.64

Surrounding terrain

Coropuna rises two km (1.2 mi) above the surrounding terrain235 from a base elevation of 4,500 m (14,800 ft),17 and about 3.5 km (2.2 mi) on the southern side where the Rio Llacllaja has incised the underlying basement235 almost to the foot of the volcano, forming sharp, amphitheatre-like valleys.60 In general, many deep valleys cut into the flanks of the volcano65 and give the mountain an "impressive topographic relief".1

The region is characterised by high plateaus separated by deep canyons, including some of the world's deepest gorges57 that reach depths of 600–3,000 m (2,000–9,800 ft).66 Apart from river erosion, giant landslides have affected the Altiplano below Coropuna,67 such as the Chuquibamba landslide, which took place over the last 120,000 years in the form of multiple collapse events within a fault-controlled basin.68

Geomorphologically, Coropuna lies at the edge of the Altiplano high plateau on the Western Cordillera mountain range;69 in the Central Andes this mountain chain is split into two ranges – the western and the eastern Cordillera – separated by the Altiplano.70 The Pucuncho Basin13 and Firura volcano lie north of Coropuna, while Solimana volcano is northwest from Coropuna.15 Sara Sara is another volcano in the area.39 A large lava dome lies northwest of Coropuna20 while Cerro Pumaranra, a 5,089 m (16,696 ft)36 eroded volcano, is to the northeast.31 19 km (12 mi) west-southwest from Coropuna lies the 4,855 m (15,928 ft) high Antapuna,71 while the Andahua "Valley of the Volcanoes" is 20 km (12 mi) east-northeast of Coropuna.72

Elevation and size

A gentle, ice-covered ridge with hump-like summits
Coropuna Este source ↗

Coropuna is the largest73 and highest volcano in Peru, the highest peak of the Cordillera Ampato2 and the third-highest mountain in Peru.78 The highest point of Coropuna is the northwestern dome139 named Coropuna Casulla,18 with 6,377 metres (20,922 ft) elevation.17444 Mountaineering sources also cite an elevation of 6,425 m (21,079 ft) for the El Toro summit,7576 which would make Coropuna the 22nd highest mountain in the Andes.25d

Estimates on the height of Coropuna have changed over time. In the 19th century, it was one of the candidates for "highest mountain in Peru", with the Mapa del Perú (Map of Peru) of Antonio Raimondi giving an estimated height of 6,949 m (22,799 ft); other candidates were peaks in the Cordillera Blanca.80 In 1910 it was believed that the volcano was over 7,000 m (23,000 ft) high and thus the highest mountain in South America, ahead of Aconcagua,8182 although a North American expedition during the preceding year had determined that Coropuna was not the highest, as they only found an elevation of 6,615 m (21,703 ft), and Huascaran is higher than this.83 Varying snow elevations might also lead to varying height estimates.75

Coropuna has several summits (up to ten overall according to one count)34 which exceed 6,000 m (20,000 ft) elevation,84 plus a 5,623 m (18,448 ft) northern summit.18 Those with individual names are the northwestern Coropuna Casulla at 6,377 m (20,922 ft),39 El Toro,7576 the western Nevado Pallacocha at 6,171 m (20,246 ft), the central Coropuna Central II at 6,161 m (20,213 ft),85 Escalera at 6,171 m (20,246 ft) in the western sector of the volcano, Paiche at 6,330 m (20,770 ft) in the central sector,8638 and Coropuna Este87 and Yana Ranra at 6,305 m (20,686 ft) in the eastern sector.3886

Ice cap

A roughly pear-shaped ice area, from which valleys emanate, lies within a multicolored landscape, as seen from a satellite image.
Coropuna's ice cap seen from space in 2010 source ↗

Coropuna features the largest ice cap of the tropics.50 As of 2014 it was 8.5 km (5.3 mi) wide and eleven km (6.8 mi) long.88 It is larger than the Quelccaya Ice Cap 250 km (160 mi) farther northeast, which was considered to be the largest,8889 but has since shrunk to a size less than Coropuna's.90 A subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha, east of Coropuna, has a small ice cap as well.91 In general, Peruvian glaciers form the bulk of the world's tropical glaciers.92 The ice cap consists of three ice domes and many glaciers.88 Perennial snow fields are present on Coropuna, sometimes making it hard to measure the true extent of glaciation or glacier retreat.35

On average, the ice cap of Coropuna is about 80.8 m (265 ft) thick,93 with maximum thicknesses exceeding 180 m (590 ft).94 In 2003–2004 the ice cap had a volume of about 3.69 cubic kilometres (0.89 cu mi) snow water equivalents.95 Ice cores have been taken from the Coropuna ice cap96 and from a summit crater;97 one of these ice cores covers a timespan beginning from 20,000 years ago.98

Penitentes22 reaching heights of two m (6 ft 7 in)99 and seracs (blocks of ice in glaciers delimited by cracks) occur on the glaciers,31 while debris cover is rare.100 The ice of Coropuna's ice cap is mostly temperate.101 Mudflows (lahars) originated from the ice cap2 and left deposits at the bottom of valleys.65 A lahar took place on the southeastern flank on 22 December 2016, causing damage to water infrastructure102 and pastures below the volcano.103

Glaciers and periglacial phenomena

A number of glaciers flow down from the ice cap,31 their number variously estimated to be 15,61 1710484 and 23.88 Some glaciers have been named; on the southwestern flank two glaciers are known as Azufrioc 1 and 2, three Rio Blanco 1 through 3 and six Tuialqui 1 through 6.105 Eighteen separate accumulation areas have been found as well.106 There are no substantive valley glaciers presently on Coropuna42 and some glaciers, especially in the eastern side, emanate from cirques.31 The ongoing downward movement of the ice on Coropuna produces icequakes.44107

Glaciers descend to elevations of about 5,100 to 5,300 m (16,700 to 17,400 ft) on the southern flank, and to about 5,500 to 5,800 m (18,000 to 19,000 ft) on the northern flank.154188 This is higher than the freezing level, owing to the dry climate;2 the freezing level at Coropuna lies at about 4,900 m (16,100 ft) elevation.35 In 2001, the ice limits were located at elevations of 5,300 m (17,400 ft) on the southern and at 5,600 m (18,400 ft) on the northern flank.108

Moraines are mostly found on Coropuna's northern and southern side20 and reach lengths of three to eight km (1.9 to 5.0 mi), with longer moraines on the northern flank.48 In general, moraines on Coropuna are steep and have prominent crests as they are little eroded.91 Grey-coloured, fresh moraines up to 500 m (1,600 ft) from the ice cap may reflect the position of the glaciers before the onset of glacier retreat which has left small mounds that often contain ice between these moraines and the ice cap91 and small, discontinuous moraines.109

Apart from normal glaciers, 78 rock glaciers have been counted on Coropuna, but only 11 of them are considered to be active.110 Permafrost occurs at elevations exceeding 5,100 metres (16,700 ft) on the southern and 5,750 metres (18,860 ft) on the northern flank.111 Cryoturbation,112 gelifluction, patterned grounds,34 solifluction113 and other periglacial landforms are noticeable34 at over 4,500 m (14,800 ft) elevation.34

Recent area and retreat

While individual trend series of the extent of Coropuna's ice cap often heavily diverge from each other, a strong declining tendency is noticeable.
Extent of the ice cap over the years, from various sources:e source ↗

Measuring the surface area of Coropuna's ice cap is difficult as seasonal snow can be mistaken for ice,116 and different studies come to various conclusions about the retreat rate, due to the use of different time periods and methodological practices. However, all studies conclude that the net retreat trend is obvious and that the ice cap is diminishing.117 Retreat rates shortly before 2009 reached 13 per cent in only 21 years.118 Between 1980 and 2014 the ice cap shrank at a rate of 0.409 km2/a (0.158 mi2/a)88 with a 2015 estimate amounting to 0.5 km2/a (0.19 mi2/a),119 and a brief slowdown observed during the late 1990s and early 2000s120 and acceleration between 2013 and 2023.121 Total shrinkage has been estimated to amount to 26 per cent between 1962 and 2000, and by 18 per cent between 1955 and 2007.2 Retreat is faster on the northern side of the mountain122 and slower among the rock glaciers and rock-covered glaciers.121 If retreat continues at the current rate, the ice cap will disappear in 2120.123

The Coropuna ice cap retreat follows the pattern recorded elsewhere in Peru such as in the Cordillera Blanca, Cordillera Vilcanota and the mountains Ampato, Quelccaya and Sabancaya,124 and is slightly slower than in other Peruvian glaciers.121 All of this retreat is attributed to global warming,108 and tends to increase during El Niño years owing to a drier climate. The glaciers lose mass through both sublimation and melting.35 Ablation occurs year-round and is diurnal.125 Recently deglaciated terrain is covered by rock debris.126

  • The ice area has been steadily decreasing since 1950 and may completely disappear in the future.
    Glacier trends and extrapolation
  • Radar display of a transect through the ice cap
    Ice profile
  • The thickest ice lies in the western portion, while marginal ice is thinner.
    Ice thickness
  • A number of transects across the ice cap have been made, with the ice cap retreating at its margins.
    Ice schematics

Glacial history

Before the first human settlement of the area,127128 the ice cap on Coropuna was much larger than today, with its surface exceeding 500 km2 (190 sq mi)129 and its glaciers descending to much lower elevations.57 Additionally, glaciers also expanded from the mountains Pumaranra, Pucaylla and Cuncaicha to the east of Coropuna.130 They covered the Pampa Pucaylla northeast from Coropuna and descended the Jellojello valley and other valleys to the east.131 Glacial valleys radiate from Coropuna,42 and glaciofluvial landforms are associated with moraines.35

Regional climate oscillations are recorded in the ice masses of Coropuna.132 The glacial history of the volcano has been reconstructed with tephrochronology (using dated tephra layers such as those from the 1600 Huaynaputina eruption), radiocarbon dating41 and surface exposure dating using helium-3.35 Three separate moraine generations38 and about five separate glacial stages have been recorded on the volcano.133 Glacial advances on Coropuna appear to be synchronous to advances of the ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere.134 Glaciers developed on other mountains in the region as well.135

Last glacial maximum

During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 25,000–20,000 years ago,87 valley glaciers on Coropuna were considerably longer than today.41 The longest glacier, at 12 km (7.5 mi), was in the Quebrada Ullulo.87 The glaciers had a cover of boulders and gravel and formed tall moraines, and both lateral and terminal moraines where outlet glaciers ended. At the crest, these moraines were as much as 100 m (330 ft) high, eight km (5.0 mi) long, and five–ten m (16–33 ft) wide.136 On the northern flank, moraine systems have been observed in the Santiago, Ullulo,137 Keaña, Queñua Ranra, Cuncaicha, Pommulca and Huajra Huire valleys,62 while the southeastern flank was covered by glaciers in the Yanaorco, Viques, Cospanja, Buena Vista Este, Buena Vista Oeste and Huasi valleys.131 Rock bars occur in some glacial valleys on the southern and southwestern side of the volcano.31 There are large cirques around Cerro Cuncaicha.4191

The LGM ice cap had an area of at least 365 km2 (141 sq mi), with glaciers descending to 3,780–4,540 m (12,400–14,900 ft) elevation. Glacier ends were lower on the northern87 and western sides, probably due to airflow-mediated variations in sublimation.138 The growth of the ice cap has been explained by a decrease of the equilibrium line altitude of about 750 m (2,460 ft). Assuming constant precipitation, temperatures may have decreased by 4.5–5.5 °C (8.1–9.9 °F).139 The glaciers began to retreat between 12,000 and 11,000 years ago.140

Other glacial periods

Ice has been present on Coropuna for at least 80,000 years.141 At least two pre-LGM advances spread beyond the area that was covered with ice during the LGM,35 with an expansion occurring in particular in the eastern sector of the volcano.142 Moraines older than marine isotope stage 2 are widespread.143 Those close to the village of Viraco may date back 40,000–45,000 years and thus be part of an earlier glaciation,144 and old dates of 47,000–31,000 and 61,000–37,000 years ago in the Huayllaura and Sigue Chico valleys could reflect even larger glacier expansions during marine isotope stage 3 or 4.145

Glaciers retreated after the end of the last glacial maximum 20,000–18,000 years ago and then re-expanded.133 During the Late Glacial, a group of moraines formed between the position of the LGM moraines and the position of the recent moraines,91 with one lateglacial advance dated to either 13,400–10,000 or 13,900–11,900 years ago.146 Full glacial conditions lasted until 10,000–9,000 years ago;141 minor advances took place about 13,000–9,000 years ago, and again some 6,000 years ago.147 The late glacial advances coincide with similar glacier expansions worldwide148 and some of them may correlate with the Younger Dryas cold period or the Antarctic Cold Reversal.149 During the Little Ice Age, glaciers on Coropuna did not expand much, although some rock glaciers might have formed during that time. The glaciers descended to 4,900 m (16,100 ft) elevation.134

Importance as a source of water

Glaciers in Peru are important sources of water for local communities and for hydropower generation, especially during the dry season; their shrinkage is thus of concern.150 A 2003 study by Bryan G. Mark and Geoffrey O. Seltzer estimated that about 30 per cent of the dry season runoff in the Cordillera Blanca comes from glaciers.151 Meltwater from the glaciers on Coropuna sustains the baseflow of the rivers152 during dry periods;104 Coropuna is an important source of water for the valleys of the surrounding areas and for the desert-like piedmont,124 with more than 60,000 people depending directly or indirectly on water originating from it.123 This water supply is threatened by the retreat of the glaciers124 and would require costly mitigation measures to compensate for its reduction. The Peruvian government is making preparations for Coropuna ceasing to be a contributor to the local water supply by 2025; a 2018 study and re-evaluation of past data concluded that the ice cap should persist until about 2120, and recommends that greater in situ monitoring of Coropuna's glaciers is needed to aid future planning and mitigation.153 Glacial meltwater has a low content of regulated metals154 while springs sometimes have very high concentrations.155

Geology

Regional setting

South America has been a stable continent since the Paleozoic, but the whole Pacific coast is geologically very active.
The larger tectonic plates around South America source ↗

Off the coast of Peru, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of five–seven centimetres per year (2.0–2.8 in/year)156 or nine centimetres per year (3.5 in/year).157 This subduction process, along with the subduction of the Antarctic Plate also underneath the South American Plate, is responsible for the volcanism in the Andes and the uplift of the mountain chain.158 In the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera) uplift commenced about 50 million years ago in the Eocene, paused until 25 million years ago in the Oligocene, and increased substantially after about 10 million years ago in the Miocene.159 Andean uplift in the area of Coropuna is ongoing.34

Coropuna is part of the volcanic arc of southern Peru50 and is considered to be a member of the Barroso volcanic arc.108 There are over six hundred volcanoes in southern Peru,160 and the entire Cordillera Occidental from southern Peru to northern Chile is covered with volcanic rocks, although present-day volcanic activity is scarce.60 Many of the older volcanoes are deeply eroded by glaciation, while younger volcanoes often still resemble cones.70

Volcanic activity in the Andes occurred during three eras. The first was between 195 and 190 million years ago in the Early Jurassic, and generated the Chocolate Formation. The second between 78 and 50 million years ago (Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene) generated the Toquepala Formation and the Andean batholiths.159 Volcanic activity in southern Peru commenced about 13 million years ago in the Miocene.161 One volcanic unit – after being folded and eroded – was covered by a second lava and tuff unit, which in turn was followed by the emplacement of large volcanoes.70 Ignimbrites and stratovolcano activity, at times subdivided into a "rhyolitic" and an "andesitic" formation, alternated.60

Basement

Coropuna is constructed atop of 14 million year old ignimbrites73 and lava flows of Neogene age.17 Individual ignimbrites crop out mainly in valleys; on the highlands they are buried beneath more recent volcanic products.34 The volcanic basement includes the Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene-era Tacaza, Huaylillas, Sencca and Barroso Formations; the latter formation includes Coropuna itself. Below these formations lie the sedimentary Murco and Socosani formations and the Yura Group, which are sediments of Jurassic-Cretaceous age with intruded plutons of the same age; finally there is a Basal Complex of Precambrian age.162

Faults and lineaments

The basement is cut by faults and lineaments such as the Viraco-San Antonio Fault that crosses the edifice,163 Pampacolca Fault on the southern side of the volcano and the Pumaranra and Cerro Casulla lineaments,161 which trend southeast–northwest and northeast–southwest, respectively. One east–west lineament may have influenced the recent volcanism;164 the alignment of Coropuna with Sara Sara, Solimana and El Misti may indicate a tectonic control on the volcano in general.165 On the southern flank, Holocene normal faults have offset lava flows and streams.42

Composition

The rocks released by Coropuna are dark brown to black and porphyritic.166 They consist of andesite,2 dacite,47 rhyodacite,167 rhyolite,168 trachy-basaltic andesite, trachyandesite and trachydacite.169 The more recent lava flows have been dacitic170 or trachydacitic.18 Phenocryst phases include amphibole, biotite, plagioclase, pyroxene and titanomagnetite.73 Aside from the volcanic rocks, deposits of salts, sulfur and travertine produced by hot springs are found on the southern flank.171

The volcanic rocks define a calc-alkaline168 potassium-rich suite which resembles that of169 Chilean172 and Peruvian volcanoes such as Tutupaca.169 They contain large amounts of rubidium, strontium and barium.169 Complicated processes173 of crystallisation and interaction with Earth's crust appear to have produced the magma.174

Eruption history

The beginning of Coropuna's growth has variously been placed over 5 million years ago,175 during the Pliocene176 or late Miocene, but most of its structure developed during the Quaternary.15 Volcanic activity has been subdivided into two stages: explosive eruptions during the now mostly eroded Coropuna I stage produced volcanic ash, pyroclastic flows and pumice but also lava flows, while Coropuna II above 6,000 m (20,000 ft) elevation erupted lava flows from the now snow-covered vents.62177 The existence of a Coropuna III sequence has been proposed.170 The most recent eruption products have been described as the "Andahua Group".178 About 5.3 million years ago, the Sunjillpa volcano was active southwest from Coropuna,38 while Cunciacha east of Coropuna is of lower Pleistocene86 and Pumaranra of Pliocene to Quaternary age.62

A major ignimbrite eruption took place about 2 million years ago at Coropuna; its deposits have been identified west of the volcano17947 and it led to the destruction of the edifice, which later re-formed on the remains of the old volcano.60 The occurrence of explosive eruptions during a mostly effusive activity has been found at Chachani and Sara Sara as well.60

In addition, the Upper Sencca Ignimbrite, the Lower Sencca Ignimbrite180 and the Chuquibamba (Huaylillas181) Ignimbrite182 may have originated here as well;183 the latter was produced by a volcanic explosivity index 7 class "super-eruption"184 between 14.3 and 13.2 million years ago in the Middle Miocene.185 The Upper Sencca Ignimbrites are a 2.09–1.76 million years old182 composite ignimbrite186 which form a 10–30 m (33–98 ft) thick apron around Coropuna and other regional volcanoes; Coropuna appears to have formed on top of one of the Upper Sencca Ignimbrite vents.182

After a hiatus,187 volcanic activity continued into the Pleistocene.47 Several lava flows on the western and central sides of Coropuna have been dated, yielding ages ranging from 410,000 ± 9,000 to 62,600 ± 4,300 years ago.38 During the last glacial maximum, Coropuna was inactive78 and moraines buried its lava flows.26 However, one78 or two tephra layers on a moraine close to the village of Viraco on the southern side have been dated to be about 41,000 and 30,000 – 31,000 years old. These ages correspond to radiocarbon ages of 37,370 ± 1,160 and 27,200 ± 300 years. These tephras may have originated in fissure eruptions associated with the three recent lava flows.144 In postglacial times lava bombs, lapilli and volcanic ash were deposited on previously glaciated terrain.62 Pumice deposits may have formed during the Holocene.65

Holocene

No eruptions of Coropuna during historical188 or modern times are known,150 and the volcano was considered to be long-extinct.43 However, young-looking42 ʻaʻā lava189 or block lava26 flows erupted during the Holocene and in part overlie late-glacial moraines.15170189 Their vents are now hidden beneath glacier ice,25 and the flows have been affected by later glacial advances.190 These lava flows are found on the west–northwest, south–southeast and northeast side of the mountain:91

  • A northwesterly lava flow – Coropuna's longest170 at 8.5 km (5.3 mi) – occupies the Cerro Sepulturayoc valley.131 It has been dated to about 6,000 years ago,131 but research published in 2019 has suggested it may have erupted somewhat earlier, during the Late Glacial period.191
  • A southeasterly flow lies in the Cospanja valley and is either 1,100 ± 100192 or 700 ± 200 years old,38 the latter age being derived from cosmogenic isotope dating.50 It was probably formed during a single eruption and is four kilometres (2.5 mi) long.193
  • A dark, young-looking lava194 flow runs northeasterly36 in the Queñua Ranra valley62 and is five kilometres (3.1 mi) long.195 The eruption took place about 2,100 ± 200 years ago196 according to cosmogenic isotope dating.50 Its deposition was preceded by the eruption of lava bombs that cover the valley and by the production of a lahar that advanced 14 km (8.7 mi) from its source. Whether a secondary lava flow in the same valley occurred at the same time or later is not clear, as that flow has not yet been dated.196

The ages of the flows indicate an eastward shift in activity.141 The southeasterly and northeasterly flows may have been erupted within 500 years from the same fissure,191 while the eruption of the northwesterly flow might be a consequence of the retreat of the ice cap.197 These lava flows are the most recent manifestation of volcanic activity18 and they imply that Coropuna is still active;150 it is thus considered to be a dormant volcano, rather than an extinct one.198 There is no evidence of Holocene tephras in peat bog drill cores78 and volcanism at Coropuna since the last ice age has been primarily effusive.191

Present day status

Steam rising on Coropuna Este source ↗

The volcano is still hydrothermally active.18 Six hot springs are found on Coropuna, mostly on the southeastern foot,199 such as at Acopallpa, Antaura/Antauro, Viques, Ccollpa/Collpa, Buena Vista and Aguas Calientes and, on its northern flank, at Huamaní Loma. Their water temperatures range between 18 and 51 °C (64 and 124 °F).200201 With the exception of the last two, which are situated in glacial terrain, these hot springs rise within valleys via rock fractures.171 Geochemical analyses of the water from these springs published in 2015 show no major variations in composition, implying a stable volcanic system.202 Whether solfataric or fumarolic activity occurs at Coropuna is unclearf,1204201 and the thick glaciation indicates that the summit craters have no thermal activity.42

Some of the hot springs on Coropuna are used for bathing.171 The volcano had been considered a potential site for geothermal power production,205 but research published in 1998 concluded that the available energy of the Coropuna area was insufficient.206

The first volcano activity report published in 2018 noted ongoing seismic activity involving volcano-tectonic earthquakes.44 Seismic swarms were observed at Coropuna after the 2001 southern Peru earthquake207 and were possibly triggered by that earthquake.208 Observations of deformation of the volcanic edifice have shown that gravitational instability and soil water absorption result in movements of part of the volcano but, as a whole, Coropuna shows no evidence of volcanic deformation.209

Hazards and monitoring

The Peruvian Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico (INGEMMET) monitors Coropuna for activity. It uses data such as the composition of hot spring waters210 and the shape of the volcano as estimated by satellite images,211 GPS and geodesy,212 as well as information from five seismic stations.74 Seismic monitoring of the volcano began in 2008-2010 and was supplemented with geophysical monitoring in 2018.213 A volcanic hazard map214 and scenarios of lahar generation have been published,53 the Peruvian government publishes regular status reports.215 The Peruvian Geophysical Institute considers Coropuna a "high risk" volcano;216 about 90,000 people live in risk areas,74 and the sites most in danger are towns in the steep southern valleys.169

Together with El Misti, Sabancaya and Ubinas, Coropuna is considered to be one of Peru's most dangerous volcanoes.217 The presence of a large ice cap,218 and therefore the risk of incandescent volcanic rocks melting that ice, creates a hazard of lahars, or mudflows, such as those that in 1985 killed over 23,000 people at Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia.32150 The risk to life is further increased by Coropuna's steep slopes and by the concentration of people in nearby valleys.219 The terrain around the volcano has one of the greatest topographic reliefs in the world and a number of towns lie on the floor of the Majes valley, right down to the Pacific Ocean where the district capital Camaná42 with 20,000 inhabitants is situated.188 Although there is no evidence of past mudflows of such size, lahars could reach as far as the coast,220 affecting a number of towns221 and infrastructure such as roads, antennas and small hydropower plants32 in the provinces Condesuyos, Castilla and Camaná.204 According to the 2007 census, 110,481 people lived in the provinces that span Coropuna and lie downstream of it.150

Lava flows are also a potential danger at Coropuna.169 Other hazards with lesser probabilities are directed volcanic blasts, lava dome collapses,169 fast-moving massive pyroclastic flows222 and flows of pumice and volcanic ash,169 lava bombs223 and shock waves from volcanic explosions.224

Climate

Precipitation

Coropuna lies between the semi-humid Altiplano and the arid western slope of the Andes.225 Its climate is semi-arid, with precipitation at 6,080 m (19,950 ft) elevation reaching 390 millimetres per year (15 in/year)g.15 Lower down the mountain, at altitudes between at 3,000 and 4,000 m (9,800 and 13,100 ft), annual precipitation levels increase to between 226 and 560 mm/a (8.9 and 22.0 in/year) (semi-humid). Even further down, at altitudes around 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft), they decrease again to 98–227 mm/a (3.9–8.9 in/year) (desert).30 Cold water brought from Antarctica along the Pacific Ocean by the Humboldt Current,228 the presence of a stable anticyclone 229 and of a temperature inversion over the Pacific, and the Andean rainshadow are all responsible for this dryness.15

Most precipitation falls as hail or snow.30 This happens mostly during the summer15 wet season, between December and March,57 when the ITCZ moves south230 and a summer monsoon is active over South America.228 Most precipitation is brought by easterly winds coming from the Amazon and the Atlantic Ocean, whereas the westerly winds that dominate during the dry season do not carry much moisture.2 Thus, humidity generally decreases in a westward direction.229

The amount of precipitation is modulated by the El Niño Southern Oscillation. During phases of El Niño, the weather is drier, snow cover smaller and glacier retreat increases.124231 Over longer timespans, precipitation in the region increases whenever iceberg discharge and cooling occur in the North Atlantic. This was the case during the Heinrich events and the Younger Dryas when lakes formed on the Bolivian Altiplano: The Sajsi formed about 25,000–19,000 years ago, Tauca about 18,000–14,000 and Coipasa 13,000–11,000 years ago.228 Cold periods in the Southern Hemisphere such as the Antarctic Cold Reversal between 14,500 and 12,900 years ago may have pushed the polar front north and increased precipitation as well.229 That increased precipitation may have delayed the retreat of Coropuna's glaciers after the end of the last glacial maximum.232 Coropuna experienced moist conditions during the early Holocene, whereas the late Holocene beginning 5,200 years ago was drier there,233 with a pronounced dry period lasting from 5,200 to 3,000 years ago.234

Temperature

Temperatures decrease with altitude gain, and at lower elevations around 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) they average 12–17 °C (54–63 °F). Between 3,000 and 4,000 m (9,800 and 13,100 ft) they average 7.8 °C (46.0 °F) and at 4,000–5,200 m (13,100–17,100 ft) elevation they average 0–6 °C (32–43 °F). At altitudes above 5,200 m (17,100 ft) they remain below freezing.30 Temperatures fluctuate more over daily timescales than over seasonal ones when measured close to the glaciers.84 Southerly cold waves can sometimes reach Coropuna, leaving traces in ice cores in the form of southern pollen.235 During the Little Ice Age, at 5,000–5,200 m (16,400–17,100 ft) elevation temperatures decreased to −5 to −7 °C (23 to 19 °F).134 Warm fluctuations between about 2,200 and 900 years ago, plus a cold fluctuation between around 970 to 1010 AD, are also recorded.236

Vegetation, fauna and agriculture

Cushion-shaped plants grow in a wide rock-strewn valley.
Yareta on Coropuna source ↗

Most of the region is covered by puna grassland, with the exception of isolated Polylepis woods to the southwest of the volcano, plus other different vegetation types to the west and southeast.237 Peat bogs are present on the southern and southwestern sides of Coropuna, and some of these have been drilled to obtain sediment cores.3141 There are several private conservation areas around the volcano.238 Elsewhere, agriculture is widespread around Coropuna.31 Insects such as beetles and hymenopterans, birds such as the Andean condor,99 fish, and mammals such as the alpaca, llama239 and vicuña occur in the region.99 Several new species of butterfly have been discovered there.240

The mountain has several distinct vegetation belts:

  • Between 800 and 2,500 m (2,600 and 8,200 ft) lies steppe vegetation with Ambrosia shrubs and cacti. Irrigation permits the cultivation of garlic, olive, onion, potato, rice, sugar cane and wheat. Pastures are also present.241
  • The steppe vegetation is also present between 2,500 and 3,500 m (8,200 and 11,500 ft) in the "pre-Puna", but it is denser here239 and includes shrubs of the family Asteraceae, such as Ambrosia, Diplostephium and Senecio.77 Crops grown here include alfalfa, but there is also some dairy farming and the planting of eucalyptus and pine trees as a wood supply for the local population.239
  • Between 3,000 and 4,000 m (9,800 and 13,100 ft) lies a so-called "supra-tropical facies" on soils overlying lava flows. It includes shrubs and thorny vegetation in very wet and very dry areas, respectively. Agriculture is practised here, including the growing of kiwicha, maize, quinoa and vegetables on anthropogenic soils242 and terraced fields.239 Dominant natural plants between 3,500 and 4,000 m (11,500 and 13,100 ft) include herbaceous plants of the families Fabaceae and Solanaceae, as well as shrubs of the Asteraceae.77
  • Between 4,000 and 4,800 m (13,100 and 15,700 ft) vegetation is found in marshes and peat bogs where sufficient water is available, in the form of relic Polylepis woodlands as well as herbaceous puna vegetation243 which is particularly prolific during the wet season. These areas are used for pasture of alpacas and llamas, and for fishing in wetlands and Polylepis woods; hamlets are found close to wetlands and forests.239 Plant genera found here include Baccharis, Calamagrostis, Chuquiraga, Festuca, Parastrephia, Senecio and Stipa.77
  • Above 4,800 m (15,700 ft) lies the so-called "Puna brava", with herbs and deep-rooted plants that have all adapted to withstand permafrost conditions.244 The cushion plant, yareta, which is used as a fuel source, is the dominant plant in this belt.245 Other plants from the Apiaceae and Asteraceae also occur.96 Vegetation, including ichu grass and yareta, exist up to about five km (3.1 mi) elevation; higher elevations are unvegetated.91

Archaeology and religious importance

More than 130 archaeological sites lie on Coropuna,246 especially at the southern and northern bases of the volcano and on its western slope.31 Among these are funerary towers known as chullpas.247 Some of these western sites are on the ice cap.31 Proposals have been made to make the area of Coropuna including these archaeological sites into a protected area.248

The coastal regions of Peru were first occupied 11,000 and 9,000 years BC.245 Evidence of the presence of hunter-gatherers near Coropuna first appear in the archaeological record in the caves of Cavalca and Pintasayoc, respectively north and south of the volcano. In the latter cave, rock paintings interpreted as dating to 7,000 – 3,000 years BC have been found.249 The first human activity at Coropuna in the Cuncaicha cave north of the volcano began 12,300 – 11,100 years ago,250 shortly after the final retreat of glaciers from the mountain.251 The region around the volcano was settled over the last 4,000 years.225

Inca times

A larger number of archaeological sites go back to the 2nd Intermediate Period252 and during the Inca era. The Inca expanded preexisting irrigation and terrace systems which are in part still existing today.253 These include the highest irrigation system in the world,254 which was possibly constructed on Coropuna to allow the cultivation of bitter potatoes.255 Inca sites are often found at higher elevations than the sites left by preceding civilisations; the highest one is located at 5,700 m (18,700 ft) elevation,256 and there is evidence of Inca presence to 6,200 m (20,300 ft) elevation.254 In addition, an important branch of the Inca road system passes by the western foot of Coropuna.254 The region was densely populated; the close location of the mountains and favourable climatic conditions facilitated its settlement.257

As noted by Spanish chroniclers258 such as Pedro Cieza de León,259 Coropuna played an important role in Inca religion, and an important temple was situated there,260 possibly at Maucallacta.261 Pedro Cieza de León considered Coropuna to be the fifth most important holy site of the Inca empire.259 One archaeological site on the volcano may have been a stopover for religious ceremonies to its summit.262 South of Coropuna, the archaeological site of Illomas and its petroglyphs may bear a relationship to the volcano.263 Capacocha, a form of human sacrifice, were offered to the mountain;258 reportedly, in 1965, a mummy was found there.264

Maucallacta and Acchaymarca

Among the archaeological sites at Coropuna is the important Inca site of Maucallacta, on the southwestern flank of the mountain.265 Some of the structures there were built to evoke the appearance of the mountain.266 A royal residence, an oracle and a political unit were associated with Maucallacta,267 and the oracle of Coropuna would have answered the rulers' queries all year round.268 The site drew thousands of pilgrims during festivities, who came to Coropuna to seek advice or make offers to the gods.269 The Maucallacta site was probably the most important one at Coropuna; the western summit today known as "La Niña" was apparently also significant.270

Another important site associated with Coropuna is Acchaymarca, to the west of the mountain,271 where about 280 Inca stone structures have been found.257 It is likely that many pilgrims came there for ceremonies honouring the apus of Coropuna and Solimana.272

Mythology, religion and legends

In the Inca Empire, Coropuna was a sacred mountain,265 especially for the people of Cotahuasi.8 It was regarded as the apu of the southern region,254 and the second-most important in the cosmology of the Andes.7 The mountain was considered to be an abode of the dead273 – a large village where holy people received the souls of the departed, who lived there in the afterlife,7274 and that could be accessed through caves.275 On the way on to the mountain, the souls are judged for their treatment of domestic animals and kitchen utensils. In Huaquira District mythology, the exhalations of the souls yield underground lakes, which return water to the living.276 In different mythologies Coropuna is instead the starting point for the deceased on a journey to Surimana.274 Coropuna and Solimana are often paired.277 Sometimes Coropuna is seen as a male entity while Solimana volcano is seen as a female one.278 The mountain is still worshipped today,279 and local people continue to observe the ancient mortuary rites.7

An enduring Franciscan influence from a colonial-era Cusco friary, the "pious among today's Peruvian peasantry" revere a "Flying" St Francis of Assisi, who is believed to await the souls of the dead on top of Coropuna.280 Other poorly recorded legends are associated with Coropuna.281 One story narrates how a brother tried to deceive Coropuna and other mountains, and was turned into a deer.282 Another legend tells of a conflict between Coropuna and other local mountains against an interloping Inca.283 A third story states that a troupe was transporting precious metals for Coropuna and Solimana when the animal leading it was shot by a hunter; the mountains then castrated the hunter.284

Climbing

The archaeological findings made on Coropuna indicate that the Inca may have reached the summit.285 Annie Peck and Hiram Bingham III each reached a summit of Coropuna in 1911; Peck raised a banner saying "Votes for Women" on the summit she had ascended, which was slightly lower than the one reached by Bingham286 a little later.287 This banner action was part of the women's suffrage campaigns that were taking place at that time, and meant to illustrate that women were just as capable as men of physical deeds.288 Bingham's ascent determined that Coropuna was not the highest summit of South America.287 Since then, other summits of the mountain have been ascended as well.85

The rugged area offers mountaineering opportunities.8 Coropuna is normally ascended from Laguna Pallarcocha, from where a route along the western rib and glacier slopes leads up to a fore-summit and then to the main summit. Along this way, a high camp can be set up at 5,600–5,800 m (18,400–19,000 ft) elevation. An ascent of Coropuna would normally be a three-day trip, and on the French adjectival climbing scale the route is graded as Facile (F). Pallarcocha itself can be reached from a road that begins in the town of Chuquibamba.75

Notes

Notes

  1. Ash flows3
  2. The age of man, including Pleistocene and Holocene.4
  3. Villages on the lower slopes of Corpuna include: Ocororuro, Arma, Maucallacta, Purhua Purhua, Chaupipuna, Utchu-Amayani, Torilla, Patilla, Pallca, Alco Llacta, Viques, Campanayo, Pecoy, Tagre, Pillcull, Chupacca, Chipcama, Cabra Grande, Pampacolca, Huncor, Huanjo, Santa Maria, Toma de Hayllaura and Huayllaura.31
  4. Other estimates of its height are 6,380 m (20,930 ft);7778 6,426 m (21,083 ft)35602 on the western summit;60 6,446 m (21,148 ft);79 and 6,450 m (21,160 ft).13
  5. As cited in Forget et al (2008),41 Palenque et al (2018),89 Marinque et al (2018),100 Silverio (2018),104 Silverio, Herold & Peduzzi (2010),114 and Silverio & Jaquet (2012).115
  6. Pits in the ice with thermal anomalies were reported in 2002.203
  7. Other reported precipitation values range between 700 mm/a (28 in/year)226 and 1,000 mm/a (39 in/year),57 the latter referring to the summit of Coropuna.227
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