Ali

Ali عليّ
Amir al-Mu'minin Abu al-Hasan Asadullah al-Murtaḍā ʿAlayhi-s-Salām Raḍiya Ilāhu ʿAnhū
Calligraphic seal featuring Ali's name, on display in the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul A conventional depiction of Ali ibn Abi Talib in the Shia tradition
4th Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate
Reign	17 June 656 – 28 January 661 (4 years, 226 days)
Predecessor	Uthman
Successor	Hasan ibn Ali (as caliph)1
1st Shia Imam
Tenure	8 June 632–28 January 661
Predecessor	Established position
Successor	Hasan ibn Ali
Born	c. 600 CE Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Died	c. 28 January 661 CE (c. 21 Ramadan 40 AH) (aged c. 60) Kufa, Rashidun Caliphate
Burial	Believed to be Imam Ali Shrine, Najaf, Iraq 31°59′46″N 44°18′51″E / 31.996111°N 44.314167°E / 31.996111; 44.314167 or Mausoleum of Imam Ali in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan.
Spouse	Fatima bint Muhammad Umama bint Abi al-As Fatima bint Huzam Asma bint Umais Khawla al-Hanafiyya Layla bint Mas'ud Al-Sahba bint Rabi'a Umm Sa'id bint Urwa Muhayya bint Imru al-Qays
Issue	Descendants of Ali Hasan Husayn Zaynab Umm Kulthum Muhsin Muhammad Abbas Ruqayya Umamah Abdullah Ja'far Muhammad al-Awsat Uthman Umar Abu Bakr Muhammad al-Asghar
Tribe	Quraysh (Banu Hashim)
Father	Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib
Mother	Fatima bint Asad
Religion	Islam

Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: عليّ بن أبي طالب, romanized: ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib; c. 600 – 661 CE) was the fourth Rashidun caliph who ruled from 656 CE until his assassination in 661, as well as the first Shia Imam. He was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Born to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad, Ali was raised in the household of his cousin Muhammad and was among the first to accept his teachings.

Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of Islam when Muslims were severely persecuted in Mecca. After the immigration (hijra) to Medina in 622, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage and swore a pact of brotherhood with him. Ali served as Muhammad's secretary and deputy in this period, and was the flag-bearer of his army. Numerous sayings of Muhammad praise Ali, the most controversial of which was uttered in 632 at the Ghadir Khumm, "Whoever I am his mawla, then Ali is his mawla." The interpretation of the polysemous Arabic word mawla is disputed: for Shia Muslims, Muhammad thus invested Ali with his religious and political authority, while Sunni Muslims view this as a mere statement of friendship and rapport. When Muhammad died in the same year, a group of Muslims met in the absence of Ali and appointed Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) as their leader. Ali later relinquished his claims to leadership and resigned from public life during the reigns of Abu Bakr and his successor, Umar (r. 634–644). Even though his advice was occasionally sought, the conflicts between Ali and the first two caliphs are epitomized by his refusal to follow their practices. This refusal cost Ali the caliphate to the benefit of Uthman (r. 644–656), who was thus appointed to succeed Umar by the electoral council. Ali was also highly critical of Uthman, who was widely accused of nepotism and corruption. Yet Ali also repeatedly mediated between the caliph and the provincial dissidents angered by his policies.

Following Uthman's assassination in June 656, Ali was elected caliph in Medina. He immediately faced two separate rebellions to avenge Uthman: The triumvirate of Talha, Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad, and his widow Aisha captured Basra in Iraq but were defeated by Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656. Elsewhere, Mu'awiya, whom Ali had removed from the governorship of Syria, fought against Ali in the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in 657, which ended in a failed arbitration process that alienated some of Ali's supporters. These formed the Kharijites, who later terrorized the public and were crushed by Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. Ali was assassinated in 661 by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam, which paved the way for Mu'awiya to seize power and found the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate.

Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims. For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry. Sunni Muslims regard him as the last of the rashidun (lit. 'rightly-guided') caliphs, while Shia Muslims venerate him as their first Imam and the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Shia Muslim culture. The shrine of Ali in Najaf, Iraq, is a major destination for Shia pilgrimage. The legacy of Ali is collected and studied in numerous books, the most famous of which is Nahj al-balagha.

Unveiling Ali's inner world is highly important for religious groups such as Shia and Alawite; similarly, presenting his pure and unexaggerated story as the Rashidun Caliph is historically significant. However, this period is archaeologically poor² and largely consists of oral traditions until the rise of the Abbasids.³

Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature, second only to Muhammad.⁵ However, the sayings and stories attributed to him are compilations from several centuries after his time. For example Nahj al-balāgha is the best-known collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Ali was the compilation credited to Sharif al-Radi (d. 1015).⁶ Critics of hadith emphasize that, among other things, the most common forms of fabricated hadith are those of a political nature,⁷ which include the glorification (fadail) of future caliphs⁸ and imams (imams in Shi'ism⁹ also hold political identities), the condemnation of rivals,^a or warnings that provide clear information about future events and seditions (Vaticinium ex eventu). Undeniable gaps between individuals' historical identity and their narrative-imaginative identity and life stand before historians as indisputable realities. These identities are sometimes supernatural personalities to whom or their representatives (Imams, Qutbs, Sheikhs) are attributed with unseen powers, including special inspirations and detailed knowledge of the future (books of the unseen), extraordinary charisma beyond human limits¹⁰ to the point of arranging the universe for them (the sunset is delayed for Ali’s prayer¹¹), and help in great crises ("help me Muhammad, help me Ali").

Limited archaeological evidence suggests that the Rashidun period lacked a distinct Islamic identity,¹² and that its early conquests were likely a secular Arabic expansion rather than a religiously-Islamic driven expansion. The expansion neither forced the population to convert to Islam nor oppressed the non-Muslim population.¹³

New historical research has cast doubt on classic accounts of the geographical origin and history of Islam^b. Furthermore, some researchers, such as Volker Popp, consider names like Ali (the exalted one) and Muhammad not as names but as titles.^c

Ali was born in tradition to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE,¹⁸ possibly 13 Rajab,¹⁹⁵ which is the occasion celebrated annually by Shia Muslims.²⁰ Ali may have been also the only person born inside the Ka'ba,⁵¹⁹¹⁸ the holiest site of Islam, which is located in Mecca. Ali's father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim, a clan within the Meccan tribe of Quraysh.¹⁹ However, modern historians do not accept genealogies from the pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods as verifiable information. Genealogies were oral products of the ayyām (Days of the Arabs) culture, which was established in Bedouin and semi-Bedouin Arab communities, as part of other traditional narrative forms based on lineage boasting. This form of transmission is one in which narratives are transmitted in a flexible manner, reshaped according to the social expectations present in each performance and the interaction between the narrator and the listener.²¹ According to tradition, Abu Talib raised his nephew Muhammad, whose parents had died, and later, when Abu Talib fell into poverty, Muhammad became wealthy by marrying Khadija, a rich woman. Therefore, Ali came under the guardianship of Muhammad and his wife Khadija when Ali was about five years old.⁵

Aged about eleven,¹⁸ Ali was among the first to accept Muhammad's teachings and profess Islam. Ali did so either after Khadija or after Khadija and Muhammad's successor, Abu Bakr. While the precise order here is debated among Shia and Sunni scholars,²² the earliest sources place Ali before Abu Bakr.¹⁸ Muhammad's call to Islam in Mecca lasted from 610 to 622, during which Ali assiduously supported the small Muslim community, especially the poor.⁵ Some three years after his first revelation,²³ Muhammad gathered his relatives for a feast, invited them to Islam, and asked for their assistance.²⁴ Aged about fourteen,²⁴²⁵ Ali was the only relative there who offered his support, after which Muhammad told his guests that Ali was his brother and his successor,¹⁸²⁴ according to the Sunni historian al-Tabari (d. 923). The Shia interpretation of this episode is that Muhammad had already designated Ali as his successor.²⁴²⁶

When tipped off about an assassination plot in 622, Muhammad escaped to Yathrib, now known as Medina, but Ali stayed behind as his decoy.⁵²⁷ That Ali risked his life for Muhammad is said to be the reason for the revelation of the Quranic passage, "But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God."²⁸²⁹¹⁹ This emigration marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (AH). Ali also escaped Mecca after returning the goods that had been entrusted to Muhammad there.²² Later in Medina, Muhammad selected Ali as his brother when he paired Muslims for fraternity pacts.³⁰ Around 623–625, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage,³¹³² aged about twenty-two at the time.⁵ Muhammad had earlier turned down marriage proposals for Fatima by some of his companions, notably, Abu Bakr and Umar.³³³²³⁴

A Christian envoy from Najran, located in South Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.³⁵³⁶ The envoy also debated with Muhammad the nature of Jesus, human or divine.³⁷³⁸ Linked to this episode is verse 3:61 of the Quran,³⁹ which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to mubahala (lit. 'mutual cursing'),⁴⁰ perhaps when their debate had reached a deadlock.³⁸ Even though the delegation ultimately withdrew from the challenge,³⁶ Muhammad appeared for the occasion of mubahala, accompanied by Ali, his wife Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.⁴¹³⁰ The inclusion of these four by Muhammad in the mubahala ritual, as his witnesses and guarantors,⁴²⁴³ likely raised their religious rank within the community.³⁷⁴⁴ If the word 'ourselves' in the verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.⁴⁵⁴⁶

In Medina, Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy.⁴⁷²² He was also one of the scribes tasked with committing the Quran to writing.⁵ In 628, Ali wrote down the terms of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, the peace treaty between Muslims and Meccan pagans. In 630, divine orders pushed Muhammad to replace Abu Bakr with Ali for a key Quranic announcement in Mecca,⁴⁸⁴⁹ according to the canonical Sunni source Sunan al-Nasa'i.¹⁹ Ali also helped ensure that the Conquest of Mecca in 630 was bloodless and later destroyed the idols housed in Ka'ba.⁵ In 631, Ali was sent to preach Islam in Yemen,⁵ as a consequence of which the Hamdanids peacefully converted.²⁷¹⁹ Ali also peacefully resolved a blood feud between Muslims and the Banu Jadhima.¹⁹

Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military missions except the Expedition of Tabuk in 630, during which Ali was left behind in charge of Medina.²⁷ The hadith of the position is linked to this occasion, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?" This statement appears in the canonical Sunni sources Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, among others.⁵⁰ For the Shia, this hadith signifies Ali's usurped right to succeed Muhammad.⁵¹ In the absence of Muhammad, Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak in 628.²²⁵

Ali was renowned for his bravery on the battlefield,³⁰²² and for his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.⁵² He was the standard-bearer in the Battle of Badr (624) and the Battle of Khaybar (628).⁴⁷ He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud (625) and the Battle of Hunayn (630),³⁰⁵ and Muslims' victory in the Battle of Khaybar has been attributed to his courage,²² where he is said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort.³⁰ Ali also defeated the pagan champion Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of the Trench in 627.¹⁹ According to al-Tabari,¹⁹ Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice at Uhud, "[There is] no sword but Zulfiqar [Ali's sword], [there is] no chivalrous youth (fata) but Ali."⁴⁹⁵ Ali and another companion, Zubayr, apparently oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 626–627,²² though the historicity of this account has been doubted.⁵³⁵⁴⁵⁵

On his return trip from the Hajj pilgrimage in 632, Muhammad halted the large caravan of pilgrims at the Ghadir Khumm and addressed them after the congregational prayer.⁵⁶ After the prayer,⁵⁷ Muhammad delivered a sermon to a large number of Muslims in which he emphasized the importance of the Quran and his ahl al-bayt (lit. 'people of the house', his family).^58596061 Taking Ali by the hand, Muhammad then asked if he was not awla (lit. 'have more authority over' or 'closer to') the believers than themselves,⁶¹⁶² this is evidently a reference to verse 33:6 of the Quran.⁶³⁶⁴ When they affirmed,⁶¹ Muhammad then declared, "He whose mawla I am, Ali is his mawla."⁶⁵⁶¹ Musnad Ibn Hanbal, a canonical Sunni source, adds that Muhammad repeated this statement three or four more times and that Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon, "You have now become the mawla of every faithful man and woman."⁶⁶⁶⁰ Muhammad had earlier alerted Muslims about his impending death.⁶⁷⁵⁸⁶⁸ Shia sources describe the event in greater detail, linking the announcement to verses 5:3 and 5:67 of the Quran.⁶⁷

The authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested,^61697058 as it is "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" reports in classical Islamic sources.⁷¹ However, mawla is a polysemous Arabic word and its interpretation in the context of the Ghadir Khumm is split along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret mawla as 'leader', 'master', and 'patron',⁷² while Sunni sources interpret it as love or support for Ali.⁵⁷³ Shias, therefore, view the Ghadir Khumm as the investiture of Ali with Muhammad's religious and political authority,⁷⁴⁷⁵¹⁹ while Sunnis regard it as a statement about the rapport between the two men,⁵⁵⁸⁷⁶ or that Ali should execute Muhammad's will.⁵ Shias point to the extraordinary nature of the announcement,⁷³ give Quranic and textual evidence,⁷⁷⁶⁷⁵⁸ and argue to eliminate other meanings of mawla in the hadith except for authority,⁷⁸ while Sunnis minimize the importance of the Ghadir Khumm by casting it as a simple response to earlier complaints about Ali.⁷⁹ During his caliphate, Ali is known to have asked Muslims to come forward with their testimonies about the Ghadir Khumm,⁸⁰⁸¹⁸² presumably to counter challenges to his legitimacy.⁸³

Muhammad died in 632 when Ali was in his early thirties.⁸⁴ As he and other close relatives prepared for the burial,⁸⁵⁸⁶ a group of the Ansar (Medinan natives, lit. 'helpers') gathered at the Saqifa to discuss the future of Muslims or to retake control of their city, Medina. Abu Bakr and Umar were among the few representatives of the Muhajirun (Meccan converts, lit. 'migrants') at the Saqifa.⁸⁷ The case of Ali was unsuccessfully brought up at the Saqifa in his absence,⁸⁸⁸⁹ and, ultimately, those present there appointed Abu Bakr to leadership after a heated debate that is said to have become violent.⁹⁰ Clan rivalries at the Saqifa played a key role in favor of Abu Bakr,⁸⁵⁹¹ and the outcome may have been different in a broad council (shura) with Ali as a candidate.⁹²⁹³ In particular, the Quraysh tradition of hereditary succession strongly favored Ali,⁹⁴⁹⁵⁹⁶ even though his youth weakened his case.²²⁸⁴ By contrast, the succession (caliphate) of Abu Bakr is often justified on the basis that he led some of the prayers in Muhammad's final days,⁸⁵⁹⁷ but the veracity and political significance of such reports have been questioned.⁸⁵⁹⁸⁹⁹

While the appointment of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance in Medina,⁹⁷ the Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali's house.¹⁰⁰¹⁰¹ Among them were Zubayr and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.¹⁰¹ These protestors held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad,³²¹⁰² probably in reference to the Ghadir Khumm.⁵⁸ Among others,¹⁰³ al-Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters did not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr.^10432105106 The scene soon grew violent,¹⁰³¹⁰⁷ but the mob retreated after Ali's wife, Fatima, pleaded with them.¹⁰⁴ Abu Bakr later placed a successful boycott on the Banu Hashim,¹⁰⁸ who eventually abandoned their support for Ali.¹⁰⁸¹⁰⁹ Most likely, Ali himself did not pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr until Fatima died within six months of her father, Muhammad.¹¹⁰ In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali by the order of Abu Bakr.^11132102 Sunnis categorically reject these reports,¹¹² but there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima's house by force and arrested Ali,^113114115 an incident that Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed.¹¹⁶¹¹⁷ Likely a political move to weaken the Banu Hashim,^118119120121 Abu Bakr had earlier confiscated from Fatima the rich lands of Fadak, which she considered her inheritance (or a gift) from her father.¹²²¹²³ The confiscation of Fadak is often justified in Sunni sources with a hadith about prophetic inheritance, the authenticity of which has been doubted partly because it contradicts Quranic injunctions.¹²²¹²⁴

In the absence of popular support, Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of Abu Bakr, probably for the sake of Muslim unity.^125126127 In particular, Ali turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate.¹²⁸²² He nevertheless viewed himself as the most qualified candidate for leadership by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad.^129130131 Evidence suggests that Ali further considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad.^13281133 Unlike Muhammad's lifetime,¹³⁴¹³⁵ Ali retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and his successors, Umar and Uthman.⁵¹³⁴³⁰ Ali did not participate in the Ridda wars and the early Muslim conquests,³⁰ though he remained an advisor to Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters.,⁵³⁰ However, their conflicts with Ali is also well-documented,^136137138 but largely ignored in Sunni sources.¹³⁹¹⁴⁰ These tensions were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644 when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs.¹³⁵¹³⁴ In contrast, Shia sources view Ali's pledge to Abu Bakr as a (coerced) act of political expediency (taqiya).¹⁴¹ The conflicts with Ali are probably magnified in Shia sources.¹³⁹

Before his death in 634, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor.¹⁴² Ali was not consulted about this appointment, which was initially resisted by some senior companions.¹⁴³ Ali himself did not press any claims this time and kept aloof from public affairs during the caliphate of Umar,¹⁴⁴ who nevertheless consulted Ali in certain matters.⁵¹⁴⁵ For instance, Ali is credited with the idea of adopting the migration to Medina (hijra) as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.²⁷ Yet Ali's political advice was probably ignored.²² For example, Umar devised a state register (diwan) to distribute excess state revenues according to Islamic precedence,¹⁴⁶ but Ali held that those revenues should be equally distributed among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.¹⁴⁷²² Ali was also absent from the strategic meeting of notables near Damascus.²² Ali did not participate in Umar's military expeditions,¹⁴⁸¹⁸ although he does not seem to have publicly objected to them.¹⁸ Umar likely opposed the combination of prophethood and caliphate in the Banu Hashim,¹⁴⁹¹⁵⁰ and he prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed,^59151152 possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor.¹⁵³ Nevertheless, perhaps realizing the necessity of Ali's cooperation in his collaborative scheme of governance, Umar made some limited overtures to Ali and the Banu Hashim during his caliphate.¹⁵⁴ For instance, Umar returned Muhammad's estates in Medina to Ali, but kept Fadak and Khayber.¹⁵⁵ By some accounts, Umar also insisted on marrying Ali's daughter Umm Kulthum, to which Ali reluctantly agreed when the former enlisted public support for his demand.¹⁵⁶

Before his death in 644,¹⁵⁷ Umar tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves.¹⁵⁸ Ali and Uthman were the strongest candidates in this committee,¹⁵⁹¹⁶⁰ whose members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh tribe.¹⁵⁸ Another member, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, was given the deciding vote either by the committee or by Umar.^161162163 After deliberations, Ibn Awf appointed his brother-in-law Uthman as the next caliph,¹⁶⁴¹⁶⁵ when the latter promised to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs.¹⁶⁴ By contrast, Ali rejected this condition,¹⁶⁴¹⁶³ or gave an evasive answer.¹⁶⁶ The Ansar were not represented in the committee,¹⁶⁷¹⁶² which was evidently biased toward Uthman.^168169163 Both of these factors worked against Ali,^162170171 who could not have been simply excluded from the proceedings.¹⁷²

Uthman was widely accused of nepotism,¹⁷³ corruption,¹⁷⁴¹⁷⁵ and injustice.¹⁷⁶ Ali too criticized Uthman's conduct,^2218177 including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.¹⁷⁸¹⁷⁹ Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,¹⁸⁰¹⁸¹ and overall acted as a restraining influence on Uthman.¹⁸⁰ Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition movement,¹⁸²¹⁸³ joined in their efforts by Talha and Zubayr, both senior companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha.^184185182 Among such supporters of Ali were Malik al-Ashtar and other religiously learned qurra (lit. 'Quran readers').¹⁸⁶¹⁷⁹ These supporters wanted to see Ali as the next caliph but there is no evidence that he coordinated with them.¹⁸⁷ Ali also rejected the requests to lead the rebels,²²¹⁸⁸ although he probably sympathized with their grievances.¹⁸⁹¹⁸⁸ He was therefore considered a natural focus for the opposition,¹⁹⁰ at least morally.²²

As their grievances mounted, provincial dissidents poured into Medina in 656.³⁰ The Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to negotiate with Uthman.¹⁹¹¹⁹² Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to refrain from violence, which they heeded.¹⁹³ He also repeatedly mediated between Uthman and the dissidents,^30194195 to address their economic and political grievances.¹⁹⁶³⁰ In particular, Ali negotiated and guaranteed the agreement that ended the first siege.¹⁹⁷³⁰ He then convinced Uthman to publicly repent,¹⁹⁸ which the caliph did but then retracted his statement, possibly influenced by his secretary Marwan ibn al-Hakam.¹⁹⁹ Egyptian rebels laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time when they intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They demanded the caliph's abdication but he refused and maintained his innocence about the letter,²⁰⁰ for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.²⁰¹²⁰² Ali also sided with Uthman,²⁰⁰ but the caliph apparently accused him about the letter.²⁰³ This is probably when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman,²⁰⁰¹⁹⁰ who was assassinated soon after by Egyptian rebels.^201204205 Ali played no role in the deadly attack,²²²⁰⁶ and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at Ali's behest.^5207182 He also convinced the rebels to deliver water to Uthman's house during the siege.²⁰⁰¹⁸⁰

When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels,²⁰¹ the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali.¹²⁵ The majority of the Muhajirun,^30188208 and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time.²⁰⁹ The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who, after some hesitation,^1883018 publicly took the oath of office.^210211212 Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali.²¹² Talha and Zubayr, who both aspired to the caliphate,²¹³²¹⁴ also gave their pledges to Ali, most likely willingly,^18215207 but later broke their oaths.^21618217 Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge,²¹⁰ and there is little evidence of any violence, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.²¹⁸ At the same time, the supporters, who were in the majority in Medina, might have intimidated others.²¹⁹

Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide.^220194221 His election, irregular and without a council,¹²⁵ faced little public opposition in Medina,^206222220 but the rebels' support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination.²² Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali,²²³²¹³ he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to caliphate.²²⁴¹²⁵ Within the Quraysh, two camps opposed Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh.²¹⁶²⁰⁶ Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad's kin to leadership,²²⁵²²⁶ which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh.²²⁷

The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice.^22923030 He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance,^231232233 and dismissed nearly all of Uthman's governors,²²⁴ whom he considered corrupt.²³⁴ Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad,²³⁵ and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption.²³⁶²³⁷ Some of those affected by Ali's egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman.²³⁸ Among them was Mu'awiya, the long-time governor of the Levant.¹⁸³ Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism,²²²³⁹ and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency.²³⁸²³³ His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad,²⁴⁰²⁴¹ and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, citing verse 68:9 of the Quran,²⁴¹ "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise."²⁴²²⁴³ Some instead suggest that Ali's decisions were actually justified on a practical level.^21124430 For instance, the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.²¹¹

As evident from his public speeches,²⁴⁵ Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority.²⁴⁶²⁴⁷ He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunna.²⁴⁸²⁴⁹ Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did.²⁵⁰ They felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty (walaya) to Ali that transcended politics.²⁵¹ For instance, many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658.²⁵²²⁵³ They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali based on his merits, precedent in Islam,²⁵⁴ his kinship with Muhammad,²⁵⁵ and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm.²⁵¹ Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death,²⁵⁶ as evidenced in the poetry from that period, for instance.²⁵⁷²⁵⁸

Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues.²⁰⁹ He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims,²⁰⁹²² following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.²⁵⁹²³⁵ In comparison, Umar had distributed the state revenues according to Islamic merit,²⁶⁰²⁶¹ and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption.^173262174 The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the qurra, and the late immigrants to Iraq.²²³ By contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman.²⁶³ They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors.²⁶⁴²³⁵ Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali,²⁶⁵²⁶⁶ who even withheld public funds from his relatives,²⁶⁷²⁶⁸ whereas his archenemy Mu'awiya readily offered monetary gifts.²⁶⁶²⁶⁹ Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds.²⁷⁰ A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation.²⁷¹²⁷²

During the civil war, Ali forbade his soldiers from looting,²⁷³²⁷⁴ and instead paid them from the tax revenues.²⁷³ He also pardoned his enemies in victory.²⁷⁴²⁷⁵ Both of these practices were later enshrined in Islamic law.²⁷⁴ Ali also advised his commander al-Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace, not to violate any agreements,²⁷⁶ and ordered him not to commence hostilities.²⁷⁷ Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians,²⁷⁸ killing the wounded and those who fled, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming women.²⁷⁹ He prevented the enslavement of women in victory, even though some protested.²² Before the Battle of Siffin, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.²⁸⁰²⁸¹

Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession.²⁸²²²⁴ She was joined in Mecca by her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr,²⁸³ who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali.^21618217 This opposition demanded the punishment of Uthman's assassins,²⁸⁴¹⁹⁴ and accused Ali of complicity in the assassination.^19421630 They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council to appoint his successor.²²⁴²⁸⁵ Their primary goal was likely the removal of Ali, rather than vengeance for Uthman,^285286287 against whom the triumvirate had stirred up public opinion.^207288289 The opposition failed to gain enough traction in Hejaz,³⁰²² and instead captured Basra in Iraq,¹⁸³⁰ killing many there. Ali raised an army from nearby Kufa,²⁰⁷²⁹⁰ which formed the core of Ali's forces in the coming battles.²⁹⁰ The two armies soon camped just outside of Basra,²⁹¹³⁰ both probably numbered around ten thousand men.²⁹² After three days of failed negotiations,²⁹³ the two sides readied for battle.^2933018

The battle took place in December 656.²⁹⁴²⁹⁵ The rebels commenced hostilities,²⁰⁷²⁹⁶ and Aisha was present on the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named.²⁹⁷²⁹⁸ Talha was soon killed by another rebel, Marwan, the secretary of Uthman.²⁹⁹³⁰⁰ Zubayr, an experienced fighter, deserted shortly after the battle had begun,²⁹⁶²⁰⁷ but was pursued and killed.²⁹⁶²⁰⁷ His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause.³⁰¹²⁰⁷ Ali won the day,^207302211 and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz.^303207294 Ali then announced a public pardon,³⁰⁴ setting free all war prisoners, including Marwan,³⁰⁵³⁰³ and prohibiting the enslavement of their women. Their seized properties were also returned.³⁰⁶ Ali then stationed himself in Kufa,³⁰⁷ which thus became his de facto capital.²⁹⁴²⁸⁷

Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Greater Syria, was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali,²³⁴ who removed him from his post.^308309310 In turn, Mu'awiya refused to step down and informed Ali through a representative that he would recognize Ali as caliph in exchange for the continued governorship of Syria, and possibly the annexation of Egypt.³¹¹ Ali rejected this proposal.³¹²

In response, Mu'awiya launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge.^313314315 Mu'awiya also joined forces with Amr ibn al-As,³¹⁶ a military strategist,³¹⁷ who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for the life-long governorship of Egypt.³¹⁸ Mu'awiya then formally declared war, charging Ali with complicity in the regicide, demanding his removal, and a council in Syria thereafter to elect the next caliph.³¹⁹ Contemporary authors tend to view Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext to retain power.^{320247321322323324}

In the summer of 657, Ali's Iraqi army and Mu'awiya's Syrian forces camped at Siffin, west of the Euphrates River,³²⁵ numbering perhaps at 100,000 and 130,000, respectively.³²⁶ Many of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful.²³⁰³²⁶ The two sides negotiated for a while, to no avail,^{19432730328329} after which the main battle took place from Wednesday, 26 July 657,³²⁴³²⁰ until Friday or Saturday morning.³³⁰³²⁷ Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities,²¹¹ and later fought alongside his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion,³³¹³³² and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali.^333324334 Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar ibn Yasir.³³² In canonical Sunni sources, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of al-fi'a al-baghiya (lit. 'rebellious aggressive group').^335326327

Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us."³³⁶³²⁷ Since Mu'awiya had for long insisted on battle, this call for arbitration suggests that he now sensed defeat.^336194337 By contrast, Ali exhorted his men to fight, telling them that raising Qurans was for deception, but to no avail.³³⁶³²⁴ Through their representatives, the qurra and the ridda tribesmen of Kufa,^338328327 the largest bloc in Ali's army,³⁰³²⁸ both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians' call.^33630339340 Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal,³⁴¹ most likely against his own judgment.³²⁷³⁴¹

Mu'awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution.³⁰³⁴² Mu'awiya was represented by his ally Amr,³⁴³ whereas, despite Ali's opposition, the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa.^344327345 The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657,³⁴⁶ stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory,³⁴⁷ adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and restore peace.³⁴⁶³²⁰ Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement.³⁴⁸ The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many did not support his negotiations with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. By contrast, the agreement strengthened Mu'awiya's position, who was now an equal contender for the caliphate.³⁴⁹

Some of Ali's men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement.³⁴⁸²¹¹ Many of them eventually rejoined Ali,^35035135222 while the rest gathered in the town of al-Nahrawan.²¹¹ They became known as the Kharijites (lit. 'seceders'), who later took up arms against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan.^35335430 The Kharijites, many of whom belonged to the qurra,³⁵⁵ were likely disillusioned with the arbitration process.³⁵⁶³⁰ Their slogan was, "No judgment but that of God,"³²⁰ highlighting their rejection of arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9.³⁵⁷ Ali called this slogan a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood because he viewed the ruler as indispensable in the conduct of religion.³⁵⁸

The two arbitrators met together in Dumat al-Jandal,³⁵⁹ perhaps in February 658.³⁰ There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge.^36036130 They could not agree on anything else.³⁶² Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession by Abu Musa, who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture.³⁶² Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign.³⁶³²² Solely an initiative of Mu'awiya,³⁶⁰ there was also a second meeting in Udhruh.³⁶⁰²¹¹ The negotiations there also failed,³⁶³ as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya,³⁰ while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar,³⁰¹⁴⁹ who stood down.³⁰³⁶⁴ At its closure, Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu'awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali and appointed Mu'awiya as his successor.^14936530 The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions,³⁶³ and the common view is that the arbitration failed,³⁶⁰³⁴⁴ or was inconclusive.^366350367 It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.^{36036823030369}

After the arbitration, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' pledge as caliph.³⁷⁰ Ali then organized a new, much smaller,³⁰ Syria campaign.^352149371 But he postponed the expedition,³⁷² and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army,³⁷² when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians.³⁷³³⁷⁴ They killed many, apparently not even sparing women.³⁵³ Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army, leaving about 1,500–1,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters.³⁷⁵³⁷⁶ The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali's army of about 14,000 men.³⁷⁷³⁷⁶ The battle took place either on 17 July 658,³⁷⁸³⁵² or in 657.³⁷⁹³⁷⁸ Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies,^380381382 many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims. For others, subduing the Kharijites was necessary, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.^383384344385

Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign.³⁸⁶³⁸² Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized,³⁸¹ or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders,³⁸⁷³⁸⁸ many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu'awiya.^389388381 By contrast, Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle.²⁶⁵²⁶⁶ At any rate, the secession of so many of the qurra and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali.^387194390 Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu'awiya in 658.³⁶⁵³⁹¹ Mu'awiya also began dispatching military detachments,³⁶⁵ which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river, near Kufa, and most successfully, in the Hejaz and Yemen.³⁹² Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults.²² He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids.³⁹³ However, plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the assassination of Ali.³⁹⁴

Ali was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 (19 Ramadan 40 AH) at the Great Mosque of Kufa. The other given dates are 26 and 30 January. He was struck over his head by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam with a poison-coated sword,³⁹⁵ in revenge for their defeat in the Battle of Nahrawan.³⁹⁶ Ali died from his wounds about two days later, aged sixty-two or sixty-three. By some accounts, he had long known about his fate by premonition or through Muhammad.³⁹⁵

Before his death, Ali requested either a meticulous application of lex talionis to Ibn Muljam or his pardon. At any rate, Ibn Muljam was later executed by Hasan, the eldest son of Ali.³⁹⁵

Fearing that his body might be exhumed and profaned by his enemies, Ali's burial place was kept a secret and remains uncertain.²² Several sites are mentioned as containing Ali's remains, including the shrine of Ali in Najaf and the shrine of Ali in Mazar.³⁹⁷ The former site was identified during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809) and the town of Najaf developed around it, which has become a major destination for Shia pilgrimage.²² The present shrine was built by the Safavid monarch Safi (r. 1629–1642),³⁹⁸ near which lies an immense cemetery for Shias who wished to be buried next to their imam.²² Najaf is also home to top religious colleges and prominent Shia scholars.²²¹⁸ Other sites for Ali's burial are claimed to be Baghdad, Damascus, Medina, Ray while a minority of Shias believe it be somewhere in the city of Kufa.³⁹⁷

When Ali died, his son Hasan was acknowledged as the next caliph in Kufa.³⁷⁶³⁹⁹ As Ali's legatee, Hasan was the obvious choice for the Kufans, especially because Ali was vocal about the exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to leadership.⁴⁰⁰³⁹⁹ Most surviving companions of Muhammad were in Ali's army, and they also pledged their allegiance to Hasan,⁴⁰¹⁴⁰² but overall the Kufans' support for Hasan was likely weak.⁴⁰³⁴⁰⁴ Hasan later abdicated in August 661 to Mu'awiya when the latter invaded Iraq with his Syrian army.⁴⁰³⁴⁰⁴ Mu'awiya thus founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate. Throughout his reign, he persecuted the family and supporters of Ali,⁴⁰⁵⁴⁰⁶ and authorized the cursing of Ali as part of the communal prayers.⁴⁰⁵⁴⁰⁷

The first marriage of Ali was to Fatima, who bore him three sons, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin.⁴⁰⁶ Muhsin either died in infancy,³² or Fatima miscarried him when she was injured in a raid on her house during the succession crisis.¹¹¹ The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids, respectively.⁴⁰⁸ As the progeny of Muhammad, they are honored in Muslim communities by nobility titles such as sharif and sayyid.⁵ Ali and Fatima also had two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum.⁴⁰⁹ After Fatima's death in 632, Ali remarried multiple times and had more children, including Muhammad al-Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali.⁴⁰⁹ In his life, Ali fathered seventeen daughters, and eleven, fourteen, or eighteen sons,⁴⁰⁶ among whom, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya played a historical role.²² Descendants of Ali are known as the Alids.⁴⁰⁸

Mu'awiya succeeded Ali in 661 and founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate,⁴¹⁰ during which Alids were severely persecuted.⁴⁰⁹ After Ali, his followers (shi'a) recognized his eldest son Hasan as their imam. When he died in 670, likely poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya,^411410412 the Shia community followed Hasan's younger brother Husayn, who was killed by Umayyad forces in the Battle of Karbala in 680, alongside many of his relatives.⁴⁰⁸ To revenge the Karbala massacre, soon followed in 685 the Shia uprising of al-Mukhtar, who claimed to represent Ibn al-Hanafiyya.⁴⁰⁸ The main movements that followed this uprising were the now-extinct Kaysanites and the Imamites.⁴¹³ The Kaysanites mostly followed Abu Hashim, the son of Ibn al-Hanafiyya. When Abu Hashim died around 716, this group largely aligned itself with the Abbasids, that is, the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.⁴⁰⁸⁴¹⁴ On the other hand, the Imamites were led by quiescent descendants of Husayn, through his only surviving son, Ali Zayn al-Abidin (d. 713). An exception was Ali's son Zayd, who led a failed uprising against the Umayyads around 740.⁴⁰⁸ For his followers, known as the Zaydites, any learned Hasanid or Husaynid who rose against tyranny qualified as imam.⁴¹⁵

Alids were also persecuted under the Abbasids, who toppled the Umayyads in 750.⁴⁰⁸⁴¹⁶ Some of the Alids thus revolted,⁴⁰⁶ while some established regional dynasties in remote areas.⁴⁰⁸⁴¹⁷ In particular, through imprisonment or surveillance, the Abbasids removed the imams of the Imamites from public life,⁴¹⁸⁴¹⁹ and they are thought to be responsible for the imams' deaths.⁴²⁰⁴²¹ Mainstream Imamites were the antecedents of the Twelvers,⁴²² who believe that their twelfth and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was born around 868,⁴²³ but was hidden from the public in 874 for fear of persecution. He remains in occultation by divine will until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.⁴²⁴⁴²⁵ The only historic split among the Imamites happened when their sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, died in 765.⁴⁰⁸⁴²² Some claimed that his designated successor was his son Isma'il, who had predeceased al-Sadiq. These were the antecedents of the Isma'ilites,⁴⁰⁸ who found political success at the turn of the tenth century,⁴²⁶ as the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the Qarmatians in Bahrain.⁴²⁷

Most of the works attributed to Ali were first delivered as speeches and later committed to writing by others. There are also supplications, such as Du'a Kumayl, which he may have taught others.¹⁸

Nahj al-balagha (lit. 'the path of eloquence') is an eleventh-century collection of sermons, letters, and sayings, all attributed to Ali, compiled by Sharif al-Radi (d. 1015), a prominent Twelver scholar.⁴²⁸⁴²⁹ Because of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of Nahj al-balagha has long been polemically debated. However, by tracking its content in earlier sources, recent academic research has attributed most of Nahj al-balagha to Ali.⁴³⁰⁴³¹ The book, particularly its letter of instructions addressed at al-Ashtar,¹⁸ has served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance.⁴²⁹ The book also includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights.⁴²⁹ Nahj al-balagha also contains sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of Ali's predecessors in its Shaqshaqiya sermon,¹⁸ and disapproval of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr, who had revolted against Ali.⁴²⁸⁴³² Celebrated as an example of the most eloquent Arabic,¹⁸ Nahj al-balagha has significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric.⁴³⁰ Numerous commentaries have been written about the book, including the comprehensive work of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid (d. 1258).¹⁸

Ghurar al-hikam wa durar al-kalim (lit. 'exalted aphorisms and pearls of speech') was compiled by Abd al-Wahid al-Amidi (d. 1116), who was either a Shafi'i jurist or a Twelver scholar. The book contains thousands of short sayings of Ali on piety and ethics.⁴³³¹⁸ These aphorisms and other works attributed to Ali have considerably influenced the Islamic mysticism.⁴³⁴

Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali, who was one of its first scribes.⁴³⁵ By some Shia accounts, this codex (mushaf) of Ali was rejected for official use during the succession crisis.⁴³⁶ Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the standard Uthmanid codex,⁴³⁷ although now the prevalent Shia view is that Ali's recension matches the Uthmanid codex, save for the order of its content.⁴³⁸ Ali's codex is said to be in the possession of Muhammad al-Mahdi, who would reveal the codex (and its authoritative commentary by Ali) when he reappears.⁴³⁹⁴²⁴

Kitab Ali (lit. 'book of Ali') is a non-extant collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali. The book may have concerned matters of lawfulness (halal) and unlawfulness (haram), including a detailed penal code. Kitab Ali is also often linked to al-Jafr, which is said to contain the esoteric teachings of Muhammad for his household.⁴⁴⁰⁴⁴¹ Copies of Kitab Ali were likely available until the early eighth century, and parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works.⁴⁴²

The Du'a' Kumayl is a popular Shia supplication attributed to Ali, transmitted by his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad.¹⁸ Also attributed to Ali is Kitab al-Diyat on Islamic law, fully quoted in the Shia hadith collection Man la yahduruhu al-faqih.⁴⁴³ The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate have also been recorded.⁴⁴⁴ Other extant works attributed to Ali are collected in Kitab al-Kafi and other Shia sources.¹⁸

The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali,^445446230 and his written legacy is dotted with Quranic commentaries.⁴⁴² Ibn Abbas, a leading early exegete, credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran.⁴⁴⁷ Ali also related several hundred prophetic hadiths.⁴⁴² He is further credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths, and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences.⁴⁴² Ali is also regarded by some as the founder of Islamic theology, and his sayings contain the first rational proofs of the unity of God (tawhid) in Islam.⁴⁴⁸⁴⁹ In later Islamic philosophy, Ali's sayings and sermons were mined for metaphysical knowledge.⁵ In particular, Nahj al-balagha is a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines, after the Quran and Sunna.⁴⁴⁹ As a Shia imam, statements and practices attributed to Ali are widely studied in Shia Islam, where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings.⁴⁴²

Ali is known by many honorifics in the Islamic tradition, some of which are especially used by Shias.⁵ His main kunya (teknonym) was ʾAbū al-Ḥasan ("father of al-Hasan").⁴⁵⁰⁵ His titles include al-Murtaḍā (lit. 'one with whom [God] is pleased' or 'one who is chosen and contented'),⁴⁵⁰⁵ Asad Allāh (lit. 'lion of God'),⁴⁵¹ Ḥaydar (lit. 'lion', the name initially his mother gave him),⁴⁵⁰ Amīr al-Muʾminīn (lit. 'commander of the faithful' or 'prince of the faithful'), and Imām al-Muttaqin (lit. 'leader of the God-fearing').⁴⁵⁰⁵ In particular, Twelvers consider the title of Amir al-Mu'minin to be unique to Ali.⁴⁵² He is also referred to as Abū Turāb (lit. 'father of dust'),⁵ which might have initially been a pejorative by his enemies.²² Siddiq al-Akbar and al-Farooq (the one who distinguishes right from wrong) are other titles of Ali.⁴⁵⁰

Often praised for his piety and courage,^23045322 Ali fought to uphold his beliefs,²²⁴⁵⁴ but was also magnanimous in victory,⁴⁵⁵²³⁰ even risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women.²² He also showed his grief, wept for the dead, and reportedly prayed over his enemies.²² Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility,²²²³⁹ for his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many.⁴⁵⁶²³⁸ These qualities were said to be also present in Muhammad,²⁴¹²⁴⁰ whom the Quran addresses as, "They wish that thou [Muhammad] might compromise and that they might compromise."⁴⁵⁷ At any rate, these qualities of Ali, rooted in his religious beliefs, contributed to his image today for his followers as a paragon of Islamic virtues,^22458456 particularly justice.¹⁹ Ali is also viewed as the model par excellence for Islamic chivalry (futuwwa).^459460461

Historical accounts about Ali are often tendentious.²² For instance, in person, Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald, heavy-built, short-legged, with broad shoulders, hairy body, long white beard, and affected by eye inflammation.²² Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different. Those perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior.⁴⁶² Likewise, Ali is presented in some Sunni sources as rough, brusque, and unsociable.²² By contrast, Shia sources describe him as generous, gentle, and cheerful,⁴⁶⁰¹⁹ to the point that the Syrian war propaganda accused him of frivolity.²³⁶ Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness, especially to the poor.⁴⁶³ The necessary qualities in a commander, described in a letter attributed to Ali, may have well been a portrait of himself: slow to anger, happy to pardon, kind to the weak, and severe with the strong.⁴⁶⁴ His companion, Sa'sa'a ibn Suhan, described him similarly, "He [Ali] was amongst us as one of us, of gentle disposition, intense humility, leading with a light touch, even though we were in awe of him with the kind of awe that a bound prisoner has before one who holds a sword over his head."¹⁹⁴⁶⁴

Ali
Gouache illustration of Ali (centre) and his sons, Hasan and Husayn, 1838, by an unknown painter
Caliph Imam
Venerated in	Islam Baháʼí Faith Druze Faith Yarsanism
Major shrine	Imam Ali Shrine, Najaf

Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Shiasim.³⁰ Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims.⁴⁵⁵ For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry.⁴⁵⁸

Ali regularly represented Muhammad in missions which are commonly linked to Quranic injunctions.⁴⁶⁵⁴⁶⁶ For instance, the verse of walaya (5:55) is a reference to when Ali gave his ring to a beggar, while praying in the mosque, according to Shia and some Sunni accounts.⁴⁶⁷ If so, then this verse gives Ali the same spiritual authority (walaya) as Muhammad.⁴⁶⁸⁴⁶⁹ In Shia sources, the verse of tabligh (5:67) spurred Muhammad to designate Ali as his successor at the Ghadir Khumm, while the verse of ikmal al-din (5:3) subsequently announced the perfection of Islam.⁴⁷⁰ The verse of purification (33:33) concerns the status of purity of the Ahl al-Bayt (lit. 'people of the house'), which is limited to Ali, Fatima, and their two sons in Shia and some Sunni sources.^471472473 Another reference to the Ahl al-Bayt might be the verse of mawadda (42:23).^474475476 For Shias, this verse is a Quranic mandate to love and follow the Ahl al-Bayt.⁴⁷⁷⁴⁷⁴

Muhammad frequently praise the qualities of Ali. The most controversial such statement, "He whose mawla I am, Ali is his mawla," was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm. This gave Ali the same spiritual authority (walaya) as Muhammad, according to the Shia.⁴⁷⁸ Elsewhere, the hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron,⁵⁰ and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam.⁴⁷⁹ Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include, "There is no youth braver than Ali," "No-one but a believer loves Ali, and no-one but a hypocrite (munafiq) hates Ali," "I am from Ali, and Ali is from me, and he is the wali (lit. 'patron' or 'guardian') of every believer after me," "The truth revolves around him [Ali] wherever he goes," "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate (bab)," "Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali. They will not separate until they return to me at the [paradisal] pool."⁴⁸⁰⁴⁹

Ali is the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam.⁴⁸¹⁴⁸² In particular, Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements,¹⁸ for Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad his esoteric knowledge and saintly authority,⁵ which guide believers on their journey toward God.¹⁸ Nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being the Naqshbandis, who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr.⁵

In Sunni Islam, Ali is venerated as a close companion of Muhammad,⁴⁸³ a foremost authority on the Quran and Islamic law,⁴⁴⁷⁴⁸⁴ and the fountainhead of wisdom in Sunni spirituality.⁴⁸¹ When the prophet died in 632, Ali had his claims to leadership, perhaps in reference to the Ghadir Khumm,¹²⁶⁵⁸ but he eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity.⁴⁸⁵ Ali is portrayed in Sunni sources as a trusted advisor of the first three caliphs,⁵³⁰ while their conflicts with Ali are minimized,¹³⁹¹⁴⁰ in line with the Sunni tendency to show accord among companions.^140486487 As the fourth and final Rashidun caliph, Ali holds a particularly high status in Sunni Islam, although this doctrinal reverence for Ali is a recent development for which the prominent Sunni traditionist Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) is likely to be credited.¹⁸ Sunni hierarchy of companions places Ali below his three predecessors and above those who fought against him.^18488483 This ordering has required Sunni reinterpretation of those prophetic sayings that explicitly elevate Ali above all companions.¹⁸

Ali takes center stage in Shia Islam:⁵ The Arabic word shi'a itself is short for 'shi'a of Ali' (lit. 'followers of Ali'),⁴⁸⁹ his name is incorporated into the daily call to prayer (adhan),⁵ and he is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad.⁴⁹⁰⁴⁹¹ The defining doctrine of Shia Islam is that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad through divinely-ordained designation,³⁰⁴⁹² which is primarily a reference to the Ghadir Khumm.⁴⁹³ Ali is thought to have inherited the political and religious authority of Muhammad, even before his ascension to the caliphate in 656.⁴⁹⁴⁴⁹⁵ In particular, Ali's predecessors are regarded as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of his rights.³⁰ The all-encompassing bond of loyalty between Shia Muslims and their imams (and Muhammad in his capacity as imam) is known as walaya.²⁵¹ Ali is also thought to be endowed with the privilege of intercession on the Judgment Day.¹⁸ Early on, some Shias even attributed divinity to Ali,³⁰⁴⁹⁰ but such extreme views were gradually rooted out of Shi'ism.⁴⁹⁶

In Shia belief, Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad,¹⁹⁴⁹⁷ for instance, in view of the prophetic hadith, "I [Muhammad] am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate."¹⁹ Ali is thus regarded, after Muhammad, as the interpreter, par excellence, of the Quran and the sole authoritative source of its (esoteric) teachings.⁴⁹³ Unlike Muhammad, however, Ali is not thought to have received divine revelation (wahy), though he might have been guided by divine inspiration (ilham).⁴⁹⁴⁴⁹⁸ Verse 21:73 of the Quran is sometimes cited here, "We made them imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed (awhayna') to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of zakat (alms), and they used to worship Us."⁴⁹⁹ Shia Muslims also believe in the infallibility of Ali, as with Muhammad, that is, their divine protection from sins.¹⁸⁵⁰⁰ Here, the verse of purification is sometimes cited.⁵⁰¹⁵⁰² Ali's words and deeds are therefore considered a model for the Shia community and a source for their religious injunctions.⁵⁰³⁵⁰⁴

Ibadis maintain a distinct theological judgment of Ali based on his adherence to Quranic principles during the First Fitna. While they initially recognized his legitimacy and approved of his stance against the rebellions of Aisha and Mu'awiya, their tradition holds that Ali forfeited his right to lead upon accepting arbitration at the Battle of Siffin.⁵⁰⁵ From the Ibadi perspective, this decision was an abandonment of a divine mandate that rendered him unfit for the imamate.

This view is solidified by his subsequent military action at the Battle of Nahrawan where he killed the Ahl al-Nahr (People of the River). Ibadis regard these opponents of Ali as the true keepers of the faith and consider their leader, Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi, as the legitimate successor to the imamate following the error of Ali at Siffin.⁵⁰⁶ Consequently, Ali is not viewed as a rightly-guided figure in his later years. Instead, the genealogy of Islam (nasab al-islām) is believed to have passed through individuals such as Hurqus ibn Zuhayr as-Sa'di who preserved the faith in its original form.⁵⁰⁷

The Alawites venerate Ali, the first of the Twelve Imams, as the physical manifestation of God.⁵⁰⁸⁵⁰⁹ Even, the Alawite testimony of faith (shahada) translates as "there is no God but Ali".⁵¹⁰ The Alawite trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations, Ma'na (meaning), Ism (Name) and Bab (Door); which together constitute an "indivisible trinity". Ma'na symbolises the "source and meaning of all things" in Alawite mythology. According to Alawite doctrines, Ma'na generated the Ism, which in turn built the Bab. These beliefs are closely tied to the Alawite doctrine of reincarnations of the trinity.⁵¹¹⁵¹² The final trinity of reincarnation in the Alawite trinity consists of Ali (Ma'na), Muhammad (Ism) and Salman the Persian (Bab). Alewites depict them as the sky, sun and moon respectively. Alawites deify Ali as the "last and supreme manifestation of God" who built the universe, attribute to him divine superiority, and believe that Ali created Muhammad and gave him the mission to spread Qur'anic teachings on earth.^513514511515

In the Druze faith, Ali is considered a "minor prophet," like Plato and Socrates.⁵¹⁶ Even though the faith originally developed out of the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, the Druze are not Muslims,⁵¹⁷⁵¹⁸ and do not accept the five pillars of Islam.⁵¹⁸ In Yarsanism, a religion founded by the Kurdish mystic Sultan Sahak, Ali is thought to be an incarnation of God,⁵¹⁹ and superior to Muhammad,⁵¹⁹ but their image as a Ghulat (lit. 'exaggerators' or 'extremists') subsect of Shia Islam is incorrect.⁵¹⁹

• 
  The verse of walaya, possibly the most controversial statement in the Quran linked to Ali, is engraved on the margins of this memorial stone, dating to the Seljuk era
• 
  The word 'Ali' in Arabic calligraphy, inscribed in Hagia Sophia, Turkey
• 
  Ali with his sons, nineteenth century Iranian tapestry

Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature, second only to Muhammad.⁵ However, much of this material is colored by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.⁵ The primary sources about Ali are the Quran, hadiths, and other early Islamic works,⁵ the most notable being The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, attributed to a companion of Ali.⁵²⁰ Such works were initially scarce, but this changed with the introduction of affordable paper in the Abbasid period. For instance, at least twenty-one monographs were composed on the Battle of Siffin between 750 and 950, thirteen of which were authored by the early historian Abu Mikhnaf (d. 773–774). Most of these monographs are not extant except through quotations in later collections, such as the tenth-century Tarikh al-Tabari.⁵²¹ In addition to numerous works authored by Muslims, the secondary sources about Ali include writings of Arab Christians, Hindus, and also works by Western scholars.⁵ When writing about Ali, early Western scholars often dismissed as fabricated the reports gathered in later periods because their authors often advanced their own Sunni or Shia partisan views. For instance, L. Caetani (d. 1935) often rejected the historical reports attributed to the pro-Ali Ibn Abbas and anti-Ali Aisha. Caetani instead preferred accounts reported without isnad by early historians like Ibn Ishaq (d. 767). By contrast, W. Madelung (d. 2023) argued that the tendentiousness of a report alone does not imply its fabrication. Madelung instead advocated for the authentication of historical reports on the basis of their compatibility with other events and figures.⁵²²

Notes

Notes

1. “There will be in my umma a man named Abu Óanifa, and he will be its lamp . . . and there will be in my umma a man named Muhammad b. Idris [al-Shafii] whose strife is more harmful than that of Satan.https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/M-JICI/article/download/260009/175713/9885
2. Western historians describe the purpose of these early biographies as largely to convey a message—of a hagiographic nature—rather than to strictly and accurately record history.¹⁴ Lawrence Conrad examines the early sirah books and sees that the dates of Muhammad's birth span a period of up to 85 years. Conrad defines this as: "the fluidity (evolutionary process) continued even in the written period."¹⁵
3. The titles given to Jesus by Assyrian Christians living in the Sasanian Empire are equivalent to Muhammad's New Testament benedictus, ευλογημένος. In a numismatic study, Popp identified coins dating to 16 AH inscribed with mhmd (Arabic written without vowels, but lacking the rasulullah, which became common later). Popp added Arab-Sasanian and Syrian coins inscribed with MHMT in the Pahlavi script, and also partly with mhmd in the Arabic script, combined with Christian symbolism in some cases.¹⁶¹⁷

Footnotes

Footnotes

1. Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139048828. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9.
2. Donner 2010, p. 628.
3. Vansina (1985)
4. Album, Bates & Floor 2012.
5. Afsaruddin & Nasr 2023.
6. Shah-Kazemi 2006a.
7. Brown, Daniel W. (1999). Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought. Cambridge University Press. pp. 81–107. ISBN 0521570778.
8. https://sunnah.com/abudawud:4646
9. https://en.wikishia.net/view/Hadith_al-Lawh
10. During his Ascension, Muhammad experienced and witnessed such things related to Ali that upon his return he said to Ali, "Ali, if I had not witnessed your birth with my own eyes and embraced you with my own hands, I would have believed that you were God."Literatur: Hadji Bektach: Un Mythe Et Ses Avatars: Genhse Et Evolution Du Soufisme Populaire En Turquie; Brill Academic Pub, 1998; ISBN 90-04-10954-4, Cem Kirklar auf S. 17–24, S. 51, S. 227–236 - (französisch)
11. "The narration was considered as fabricated (mawdu) by scholars such as Ali ibn al-Madini, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Ibn al-Jawzi, Ibn Taymiyyah, al-Zahabi, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya and Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani. Scholars such as Ahmad ibn Salih al-Misri, Tahawi, Qaḍi Iyaz, Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, Mogultay ibn Kilic, al-Haythami, Abu Zur’a al-Iraqi, Ibn Hajar, al-Ayni, al-Suyuti, Sahawi, Ali al-Qari, Munawi, al-Ajluni, and al-Qasimi regarded the hadith as sabit." https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/3290781
12. Under the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān, the Dome of the Rock was built in Jerusalem (691–692). There the word Islām appears for the first time. Until this moment the Muslims called themselves simply "believers", and coins were minted in the Arabic empire showing Christian symbols. Ibn Marwān also plays a major role in the reworking of the Quranic text. See: Patricia Crone / Michael Cook: Hagarism (1977) p. 29; Yehuda D. Nevo: Crossroads to Islam: The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State (2003) pp. 410-413; Karl-Heinz Ohlig (Hrsg.): Der frühe Islam. Eine historisch-kritische Rekonstruktion anhand zeitgenössischer Quellen (2007) pp. 336 ff.
13. Robert G. Hoyland: In God's Path. The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (2015)
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325. Madelung 1997, p. 226.
326. Lecker 2012.
327. Donner 2010, p. 161.
328. Shaban 1971, p. 75.
329. Kennedy 2016, p. 67.
330. Madelung 1997, p. 232.
331. Hazleton 2009, p. 198.
332. Madelung 1997, p. 234.
333. Madelung 1997, p. 235.
334. Ayoub 2014, p. 119.
335. Abbas 2021, p. 149.
336. Madelung 1997, p. 238.
337. Adamec 2017, p. 406.
338. Veccia Vaglieri 1970, p. 70.
339. Ayoub 2014, pp. 123–4.
340. Hinds 1972b, p. 97.
341. Madelung 1997, p. 241.
342. Hinds 1972b, p. 98.
343. Madelung 1997, pp. 241–2.
344. Afsaruddin 2013, p. 53.
345. Dakake 2007, pp. 1–2.
346. Madelung 1997, p. 243.
347. Dakake 2007, p. 1.
348. Madelung 1997, p. 247.
349. Madelung 1997, p. 245.
350. Rauf 2007, p. 191.
351. Madelung 1997, p. 248–249.
352. Donner 2010, p. 163.
353. Levi Della Vida 2012.
354. Donner 2010, p. 162.
355. Hinds 1972b, p. 100.
356. Hinds 1972b, p. 101.
357. Rauf 2007, pp. 190–191.
358. Madelung 1997, pp. 249–50.
359. Ayoub 2014, p. 129.
360. Madelung 1997, p. 255.
361. Aslan 2005, p. 137.
362. Madelung 1997, p. 256.
363. Madelung 1997, p. 257.
364. Madelung 1997, p. 286.
365. Donner 2010, p. 165.
366. Fadel 2013, p. 43.
367. Hinds 1972b, p. 102.
368. Jafri 1979, p. 65.
369. Daftary 2013, p. 31.
370. Madelung 1997, pp. 257–8.
371. Madelung 1997, pp. 255, 257.
372. Madelung 1997, pp. 259–60.
373. Wellhausen 1901, pp. 17–18.
374. Madelung 1997, p. 254.
375. Madelung 1997, p. 260.
376. Wellhausen 1901, p. 18.
377. Madelung 1997, pp. 259–261.
378. Madelung 1997, pp. 260–1.
379. Wellhausen 1927, p. 85.
380. Ayoub 2014, pp. 141, 171.
381. Donner 2010, p. 164.
382. Madelung 1997, p. 262.
383. Madelung 1997, p. 261.
384. Kelsay 1993, p. 87.
385. Shah-Kazemi 2019, pp. 97–8.
386. Ayoub 2014, p. 141.
387. Shaban 1971, p. 77.
388. Jafri 1979, p. 123.
389. Kennedy 2016, p. 68.
390. Kennedy 2016, p. 69.
391. Madelung 1997, pp. 268–9.
392. Madelung 1997, pp. 262, 288–291, 293.
393. Madelung 1997, p. 307.
394. Donner 2010, p. 166.
395. Veccia Vaglieri 2012g.
396. Madelung 1997, p. 308.
397. Kohlberg 1982.
398. Momen 1985, p. 26.
399. Veccia Vaglieri 2012e.
400. Madelung 1997, p. 311.
401. Momen 1985, pp. 26–7.
402. Jafri 1979, p. 91.
403. Momen 1985, p. 27.
404. Jafri 1979, pp. 109–10.
405. Madelung 1997, p. 334.
406. Lewis 2012.
407. Dakake 2007, pp. 67, 78.
408. Daftary 2014.
409. Huart 2012b.
410. Madelung 2003.
411. Momen 1985, p. 28.
412. Anthony 2013, p. 216.
413. McHugo 2017, p. 104.
414. Momen 1985, p. 69.
415. Momen 1985, pp. 49, 50.
416. Momen 1985, p. 71.
417. Donner 1999, p. 26.
418. Sachedina 1981, p. 25.
419. Dakake 2007, p. 211.
420. Pierce 2016, p. 44.
421. Momen 1985, p. 44.
422. McHugo 2017, p. 107.
423. Momen 1985, p. 161.
424. Amir-Moezzi 1998.
425. McHugo 2017, p. 108.
426. Haider 2014, p. 92.
427. Daftary 2007, pp. 2, 110, 128.
428. Thomas 2008.
429. Esposito 2003, p. 227.
430. Shah-Kazemi 2006.
431. Djebli 2012.
432. Dakake 2007, p. 225.
433. Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 4.
434. Jozi & Shah-Kazemi 2015.
435. Modarressi 2003, p. 2.
436. Modarressi 1993, p. 13.
437. Amir-Moezzi 2009, p. 24.
438. Momen 1985, pp. 77, 81.
439. Amir-Moezzi 1994, p. 89.
440. Esposito 2003, pp. 175–176.
441. Modarressi 2003, p. 5.
442. Pakatchi 2015.
443. Modarressi 2003, pp. 12–13.
444. Modarressi 2003, p. 17.
445. Modarressi 2003, p. 3.
446. Hulmes 2008, p. 45.
447. Lalani 2006, p. 28.
448. Nasr 2006, pp. 2, 120.
449. Corbin 2006, pp. 35–36.
450. Haj Manouchehri 2015.
451. Alizadeh 2015.
452. Gibb 2012.
453. Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 72.
454. Steigerwald 2004.
455. Madelung 1997, pp. 309–310.
456. Ayoub 2014, p. 134.
457. Tabatabai 1975, pp. 46, 64.
458. Madelung 1997, p. 310.
459. Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 189n1.
460. Glassé 2001, p. 41.
461. Momen 1985, p. 90.
462. Abbas 2021, p. 63.
463. Shah-Kazemi 2019, pp. 35–36.
464. Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 104.
465. Lalani 2006.
466. Momen 1985, pp. 11–12.
467. Nasr et al. 2015, p. 706.
468. Nasr et al. 2015, p. 706-7.
469. Mavani 2013, p. 46.
470. Mavani 2013, pp. 70–71.
471. Momen 1985, pp. 16, 17.
472. Leaman 2006.
473. Momen 1985, pp. 16–7, 325.
474. Lalani 2000, p. 66.
475. Momen 1985, p. 152.
476. Mavani 2013, pp. 41, 60.
477. Mavani 2013, p. 41.
478. Tabatabai 1975, p. 35.
479. Miskinzoda 2015, p. 76.
480. Momen 1985, pp. 14–15.
481. Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 134.
482. Louër 2020, p. 30.
483. Rauf 2007, p. 201.
484. Rauf 2007, p. 202.
485. Keaney 2021, p. 136.
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488. Crone 2005, p. 135.
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493. Daftary 2015, p. 172.
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508. Nisan 2002, p. 116.
509. Cosman & Jones 2009, p. 407.
510. Atwan 2015, p. 58.
511. Ismail 2016, p. 67.
512. Moosa 1987, p. 311–312.
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• Alizadeh, M. (2015). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 11. The Iconography of Imam 'Alī in Persianate Islamic Art". In Daftary, F. (ed.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. Translated by Negahban, F. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126.
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Others

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• Afsaruddin, A.; Nasr, S.H. (2023). "Ali". Encyclopedia Britannica.
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Journals and theses

• Arafat, W. N. (1976). "New Light on the Story of Banū Qurayẓa and the Jews of Medina". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 108 (2): 100–107. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00133349. JSTOR 25203706.
• Hinds, M. (1971). "Kûfan Political Alignments and Their Background in the Mid-Seventh Century A.D.". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 2 (4): 346–367. doi:10.1017/S0020743800001306.
• Hinds, M. (1972a). "The Murder of the Caliph 'Uthman". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 3 (4): 450–469. doi:10.1017/S0020743800025216.
• Hinds, M. (1972b). "The Siffin Arbitration Agreement". Journal of Semitic Studies. 17 (1): 93–129. doi:10.1093/jss/17.1.93.
• Khetia, V. (2013). Fatima as a Motif of Contention and Suffering in Islamic Sources (Thesis). Concordia University.
• Lalani, A. (2011). "Ghadir Khumm". Islamic Studies. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0105.
• Miskinzoda, G. (2015). "The Significance of the ḥadīth of the Position of Aaron for the Formulation of the Shī'ī Doctrine of Authority". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 78 (1): 67–82. doi:10.1017/S0041977X14001402.
• Modarressi, H. (1993). "Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'ān: A Brief Survey". Studia Islamica. 77 (77): 5–39. doi:10.2307/1595789. JSTOR 1595789.
• Petersen, E. L. (1958). "'Alī and Mu'āwiah: The Rise of the Umayyad Caliphate 656–661". Acta Orientalia. 23: 157–196. doi:10.5617/ao.5297.
• Soufi, D. L. (1997). The Image of Fatima in Classical Muslim Thought (PhD thesis). Princeton University. OCLC 232578992. ProQuest 304390529.

Further reading

Further reading

• Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 978-969-8016-22-7.
• Merrick, James L. (2005). The Life and Religion of Mohammed as Contained in the Sheeah Traditions. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-5536-7.