Article · Wikipedia archive · Last revised Jul 6, 2026

Twice-migration

Twice-migration is a term used to refer to migrants who move from their place of origin to a new location, and then move again to a third location. Meanwhile, direct migration refers to immigrants moving from their homeland to their permanent place of residence, with there being no intermediary country between it. The phenomenon is particularly common in the Sikh diaspora. A common example is the immigration of Asians from Africa, the Caribbean, and northern South America to the United Kingdom. Many South Asians from the Gulf countries moved to Canada, thus being twice-migrants. A link to chronic poverty has been suggested. Many are descended from coolies. The term can be used for in both an individual or ethnic-sense, referring either to persons who migrate twice or persons belonging to an diasporic ethnicity who may have been born in an intermediary country but moved elsewhere.

Last revised
Jul 6, 2026
Read time
≈ 4 min
Length
1,029 w
Citations
23
Source
Wikipedia ↗

Twice-migration is a term used to refer to migrants who move from their place of origin to a new location (an intermediary, second location), and then move again to a third location.12 Meanwhile, direct migration refers to immigrants moving from their homeland to their permanent place of residence, with there being no intermediary country between it.3 The phenomenon is particularly common in the Sikh diaspora.1 A common example is the immigration of Asians from Africa, the Caribbean, and northern South America to the United Kingdom.456 Many South Asians from the Gulf countries moved to Canada, thus being twice-migrants.7 A link to chronic poverty has been suggested.8 Many are descended from coolies (indentured labourers).9 The term can be used for in both an individual or ethnic-sense, referring either to persons who migrate twice or persons belonging to an diasporic ethnicity who may have been born in an intermediary country but moved elsewhere.

Thrice-migration

Thrice-migration is a related term, that refers to there being two intermediary places between the homeland and adopted land. The process could take place over two or three generations. Many thrice-migrations involve South Asians and the United Kingdom.106 An example is the East Indians from Africa who moved to the United Kingdom and then again to Canada or Australia.1112

East Asian twice-migration

Chinese

Many Chinese people in the United Kingdom are twice-migrants as they originate from the Caribbean.13

Koreans

Some Korean Americans were twice-migrants from China, Japan, former Soviet republics, Europe, and South America.14

South Asian twice-migration

Sikhs

The phenomenon was particularly common in the Sikh global diaspora during the colonial-period, with there often being migration to Western countries from east and southeast Asian regions. Sikhs in China had been observing the Chinese migrating to Canada, seeing as it was an attractive destination for settlement, and emulated the Chinese by attempting to migrate to Canada themselves whilst alerting their friends and family back home in India on the prospect.15 Many Sikhs who were aboard the ill-fated Komagata Maru en route to Canada hailed from Shanghai.1516 According to Cao Yin, Shanghai played a pivotal role in the establishment of a Sikh diaspora throughout the world as Shanghai was often the first-stop in the global migration of Sikhs throughout the globe.17 Furthermore, many southeast Asian countries' local Sikh populations are descended from Malayan Sikh twice-migrants.1819 Another example are the East African Sikhs in the United Kingdom who originally moved there from East Africa but ultimately originated from India.1

See also

See also

References

References

  1. Danico, Mary Yu (2024). "Twice migrants". Ebsco. Retrieved 9 May 2026.
  2. Agrawal, Sandeep. (2015). Twice Migrants in Canada: Who Are They and How Do They Perform Economically?. Journal of International Migration and Integration. 17. 10.1007/s12134-015-0428-y. Also: https://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/joimai/v17y2016i3d10.1007_s12134-015-0428-y.html Retrieved on 9 May 2026 from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276365904_Twice_Migrants_in_Canada_Who_Are_They_and_How_Do_They_Perform_Economically
  3. Bhachu, Parminder. (1990). Twice Versus Direct Migrants: East African Sikh Settlers in Britain. Institute for Social Science Research. UCLA: Institute for Social Science Research. Retrieved from: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/840862km
  4. "Twice migrants: African Asian migration to the UK". Striking Women. Retrieved 9 May 2026.
  5. Kejo, Grace; Kiruthu, Ryan; Komukyeya, Belinda; Ainomugisha, Ashley; Ligoo, Jadyn; Ninsiima, Melissa. "Twice Removed, Still Home: The Evolution of South Asian Identity in East Africa". JEPA Africa. Retrieved 9 May 2026.
  6. "Map of major South Asian migration flows". Striking Women. Retrieved 10 May 2026. Flows of "twice/thrice migrants"
  7. Gupta, Tania Das (2021). "Introduction". Twice migrated, twice displaced: Indian and Pakistani transnational house-holds in Canada (PDF). University of British Columbia Press. pp. 3–11. ISBN 9780774865661.
  8. Kothari, U., 2002, ‘Migration and Chronic Poverty’, Chronic Poverty Research Centre, Chronic Poverty Research Centre, Institute for Development Policy and Management, Manchester. Retrieved on 10 May 2026 from: https://gsdrc.org/document-library/migration-and-chronic-poverty/
  9. 1. Carter M, Torabully K. Thrice Victimized: Casting The Coolie. In: Coolitude: An Anthology of the Indian Labour Diaspora. Anthem Press; 2002:45-87. Retrieved on 10 May 2026 from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/coolitude/thrice-victimized-casting-the-coolie/09CA8D612F000D8C4D6443A9571045EB
  10. Bose, Neilesh (12 January 2023). "Union Zindabad! South Asian Canadian Labour History in British Columbia: Review by Neilesh Bose (BC Studies no. 216 Winter 2022/23, p. 151-152)". BC Studies. Retrieved 10 May 2026.
  11. Walton-Roberts, Margaret. (2013). Introduction: South Asian Diasporas in Canada. South Asian Diaspora 5(1):1-5. Wilfrid Laurier University. p. 5. DOI: 10.1080/19438192.2013.726420. Retrieved on 10 May 2026 from: https://scholars.wlu.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1038&context=imrc
  12. Bilimoria, Purushottama (2013). "Figure 15 - from "Hindu (South Asian) Diaspora In Australia and New Zealand"". Hindu (South Asian) Diaspora In Australia and New Zealand (from Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism). Brill. ISBN 9789004178960. ISSN 0169-9377. ... as twice migrants and even thrice migrants, as they or their forebears have moved from one country to another, usually over a period of two to three generations. An example is East African Indians fleeing to Britain during the Idi Amin coup and later moving to Australia. They have been followed by Hindus living in Malaysia, Indonesia, Mauritius, United Kingdom,
  13. Goffe, Tao Leigh (February 2014). "Thrice Diasporized". SmallAxe. Retrieved 10 May 2026.
  14. Min, Pyong Gap. Twice Migrant Koreans in the United States: Their Origins, Socioeconomic Characteristics, and Ethnic Attachment (PDF). pp. 155, 159.
  15. Kahlon, Swarn Singh (2016). "9. Sikhs in China: Sikh Migration of Great Historical Interest". Sikhs in Asia Pacific: Travels Among the Sikh Diaspora from Yangon to Kobe. Taylor & Francis. p. 212. ISBN 9781351987417.
  16. McLeod, W. H.; Fenech, Louis E. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Sikhism. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 132. ISBN 9781442236011.
  17. Bhandari, Bibek (9 March 2018). "The Forgotten History of Sikhs in Shanghai". Sixth Tone. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
  18. McLeod, W. H.; Fenech, Louis E. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Sikhism. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 107. ISBN 9781442236011.
  19. "SHMC Timeline - English". Sikh Heritage Museum of Canada. Retrieved 2024-10-17. The first Sikh Temple (Gurdwara) in Hong Kong was originally built by Siri Guru Singh Sabah in 1901 and later managed by the Khalsa Diwan Society. It served as a refuge to almost all Sikhs arriving by ship along the Pacific/West Coast to either Canada or the United States of America (USA), as it was a key stopover for the pioneer journey from Punjab. It also served as the architectural inspiration for Canada's first Gurdwara built-in 1908.