Article · Wikipedia archive · Last revised Aug 12, 2026

Tanker war

The tanker war, part of the larger Iran–Iraq War, was a series of military attacks by Iran and Iraq against merchant vessels in the Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz from 1981 to 1988. Iraq was responsible for 283 attacks. Iran accounted for 168.

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Tanker war
Part of the Iran–Iraq War

IRGC Navy speedboats in the Tanker War, 1987
Date1981 – 4 August 19881
Location
Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, Sea of Oman
Result Iraqi coalition victory2
Belligerents
Iran Ba'athist Iraq
United States
Saudi Arabia
Kuwait
Units involved
Iran Iranian Navy
Iran IRGC Navy
Iran Iranian Air Force		 Iraqi Navy
Iraqi Air Force
United States Navy
Royal Saudi Air Force

The tanker war, part of the larger Iran–Iraq War, was a series of military attacks by Iran and Iraq against merchant vessels in the Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz from 1981 to 1988. Iraq was responsible for 283 attacks. Iran accounted for 168.1

History

The Iran–Iraq war began in September 1980.1 Before 1984, attacks against shipping had occurred, albeit on a much smaller scale.3 In December 1980, UN Secretary General Kurt Waldheim appealed to Iran and Iraq to ensure the security of peaceful shipping in the Persian Gulf.3 At that time, Iran assured other countries that it would keep the Strait of Hormuz open.3

In his 1988 review paper, naval affairs analyst Ronald O'Rourke wrote that "Iran trapped or destroyed many Iraqi ships in port in the early stages of the war. But Iraq started the tanker war in the Gulf proper in 1981 by initiating attacks on ships steaming to or from Iranian ports at the extreme northern end of the Gulf. Iraq continued these attacks into 1984 without a parallel Iranian response at sea. In March of that year, Iraq increased the rate of its attacks and expanded their geographic scope by attacking ships serving more southerly Iranian points, particularly the oil-loading complex at Kharg Island. Two months later, Iran initiated its own attacks, and the tanker war became a two-way affair."1

In 1984, Iraq broadened the tanker war by attacking the oil terminal and oil tankers at Kharg Island.45 Iraq's aim in attacking Iranian shipping was to provoke the Iranians to retaliate with extreme measures, such as closing the Strait of Hormuz to all maritime traffic, thereby bringing about foreign intervention against Iran; the United States had threatened several times to intervene if the Strait of Hormuz were closed.5 Kuwait and Saudi Arabia supported Iraq against Iran. The United States intervened in the conflict in 1986 to protect Kuwaiti tankers, and engaged in a confrontation with Iran.6

Both sides had declared an "exclusion zone", meaning areas in which they had warned ships from entering. Iraq declared the area around Iran's Kharg Island to be an exclusion zone.7 Kharg Island hosted Iran's principal oil shipment port.8 Iraq gave precise definition, in coordinates, of this exclusion zone and gave advance notification to all countries.9 However, Iraq did not designate any safe passage routes in this zone.9

USS Hawes, USS William H. Standley and USS Guadalcanal escort tanker Gas King in the Persian Gullf on 21 October 1987 source ↗

Iran declared all waters within 40 miles of its coast to be its exclusion zone. It instructed ships headed for non-Iranian ports to sail west of this line.8 While Iran also did not designate any safe passages in its exclusion zone, this was unnecessary. Iran's exclusion zone allowed for ships to enter and exit the Gulf, and essentially only kept such foreign ships out of its own waters.10 Iran's exclusion zone made it easier for Iraq to target Iranian ships. It allowed Iraq to assume that any ship in Iran's territorial waters must be going to (or coming from) an Iranian port.11

The Iranian frigate IRIS Sahand burning from bow to stern on 18 April 1988 after being attacked by the US Navy during Operation Praying Mantis source ↗

War studies scholar Stephen Phillips writes that "In January 1987, the Kuwaiti government proposed a clever scheme to deter Iranian attacks against their shipping. They asked the United States if they could reflag Kuwaiti tankers as American and receive the protection of the U.S. Navy. The administration of President Ronald Reagan debated this idea but finally agreed to it on March 7, 1987."12 These are known to O'Rourke as "reflagged Kuwaiti ships". On 17 May 1987, 37 US sailors were killed in an Iraqi aircraft attack on the USS Stark. Iraqi president Saddam Hussein apologized, saying that the pilot had mistaken the US vessel for an Iranian tanker.13

United Nations Security Council Resolution 598, was adopted unanimously on 20 July 1987, which engendered Operation Earnest Will (24 July 1987 – 26 September 1988), a successful US effort to protect Kuwaiti merchant shipping, because as noted by O'Rourke: "Aside from Iranian shipping, the most frequent victims have been ships steaming under the world's predominant flags of convenience."1 Western-led convoy tactics with armed guard vessels were used for protection in the latter stages of the Tanker War.1 In 1987, the use of towed, radar-deflecting decoys and other passive countermeasures was successfully initiated.1

In total, well over 100 sailors were killed and a similar number wounded.1 More than 30 million tons of cargo was damaged from 1981 to 1987.1 In 1987, during the conflict, Iran perfected the art of speedboat attacks, and concentrated "their fire on the crew compartments of their target ships."1 Iran also used Chinese-made shore-based Silkworm missiles to good effect.1

Flag Attacks sustained114
Liberia 61
Iran 46
Panama 41
Cyprus 39
Greece 26
Malta 9
Kuwait 8
Saudi Arabia 8
Turkey 7
Norway 7
Singapore 6
UK 6
Japan 6
South Korea 5
West Germany 5

List of attacks

1984

Date Vessel attacked Agent Result Ref
Name Flag GRT/Date
1984-03-01 Charming United Kingdom Unknown Iraqi missile aground 1516
1984-03-01(?) Sema-G Turkey Unknown Iraqi missile set afire 1517
1984-03-04 APJ Ambika India 16000 Iraqi missile sunk 1518
1984-03-29 Iran Dahr Iran 12257/71 Iraqi missile damaged 19
1984-05-27 Savoy Dean Liberia 19291/68 Iraqi missile minor damage 19
1984-06-03 Büyük Hun Turkey 80683/77 Iraqi missiles severe damage 19
1984-06-03 Giant Kirn Panama 32107/71 Unidentified missile set afire 20
1984-06-06 Dashaki Liberia 19291/68 Iraqi missile severe damage 19
1984-06-10 Kazimah Kuwait 160010/82 Unidentified a/c severe damage 19
1984-06-24 Alexander the Great Greece 152372/73 Iraqi Exocet missile severe damage 19
1984-06-27 Tiburón Liberia 125389/73 Iraqi missile severe damage 19
1984-07-01 Al Kabeer Panama 16575/65 Iraqi a/c aground 19
1984-07-01 Sitia Venture Panama 15991/66 Iraqi a/c aground 19
1984-07-01 Alexandra Dyo Cyprus 13316/69 Iraqi a/c attacked 19
1984-07-02 Won Jin South Korea 6164/74 Iraqi missiles severe damage 19
1984-07-05 Primrose Liberia 122203/76 Unidentified missiles slight damage 19
1984-07-10 British Renown United Kingdom 122203/76 Iranian a/c slight damage 19
1984-08-18 Endeavour Panama 47310/76 Unidentified missile set afire 20
1984-08-24 Amethyst Cyprus 31280/63 Unidentified missile set afire 20
1984-08-27 Cleo 1 Panama 20880/59 Unidentified missile set afire 20
1984-09-11 St. Tobias Liberia 115025/71 Unidentified missile minor damage 20
1984-09-12 Good Wind Panama 11525/70 Iraqi missile set afire 20
1984-09-16 Med Heron Liberia 60655/77 Unidentified missile Unknown 20
1984-09-16 Royal Colombo South Korea 74474/75 Unidentified missile Unknown 20
1984-10-08 World Knight Liberia 114573/75 Iraqi missile severe damagea 2021
1984-10-11 Jag Pari India 20991/82 Iranian (?) bomb minor damage 2021
1984-10-12 Gaz Fountain Panama 23796/69 Unidentified missile set afire 2022
1984-10-15 Sivand Iran 108721/71 Iraqi a/c set afire 2023

1985

Date Vessel attacked Agent Result Ref
Name Flag GRT/Date
1985-11-05 Canaria Greece 151225 Iraqi Exocet missile severe damageab 2425

1986

1987

Date Vessel attacked Agent Result Ref
Name Flag GRT/Date
1987-07-24 SS Bridgeton United States Iranian mine damaged
1987-08-10 Texaco Caribbean Panama Iranian mine damaged 26272829
1987-08-15 Anita Iranian mine sunk 303132
1987-08-30 Sanandaj Iran 129770/73 Iraqi a/c damaged 33
1987-09-01 Astro Pegasus South Korea 42510/75 Iranian w/s g/f damaged 33
1987-09-01 Bigorange XIV Panama 197/56 Iraqi a/c sunk 33
1987-09-01 Munguia Spain 140277/77 Iranian PG set afire 33
1987-09-01 Star Ray Cyprus 99011/70 Iraqi missile damaged 33
1987-09-02 Nisshin Maru Japan 103099/80 Iranian PG damaged 33
1987-09-02 Dafni Greece 48473/57 Iranian boats set afire 33
1987-09-02 Diamond Marine Liberia 101416/74 Iranian boats holed 33
1987-09-02 Jolly Rubino Italy 19418/78 Iranian boats minor damage 33
1987-09-02 Leonidas Glory Cyprus 3717/73 Iranian boats minor damage 33
1987-09-09 Haven Cyprus 109700/73 Iranian PG damaged 33
1987-09-20 Khark 2 Iran 137895/70 Iraqi a/c damaged 33
1987-09-20 Petroship B Saudi Arabia 25614/75 Iranian PG minor damage 33
1987-09-20 Shirvan Iran 41439/79 Iraqi a/c damaged 33
1987-09-21 Gentle Breeze British Hong Kong 57462/70 Iranian PG severe damage 33
1987-09-21 Marissa I Panama 181/69 Iranian mine sunk 33
1987-09-27 Coral Cape Cyprus 112825/74 Iraqi missile (2) damaged 33
1987-09-27 Iran Sepah Iran 19702/76 Iraqi a/c damaged 33
1987-09-27 Merlin Cyprus 110037/71 Iraqi missile (2) damaged 33
1987-09-27 Shirvan Iran 41439/79 Iraqi missile damaged 33
1987-09-29 Khark Iran 127453/73 Iraqi a/c damaged 33
1987-09-29 Koriana Greece 38629/85 Iranian w/s slight damage 33
1987-09-30 Western City Liberia 105803/75 Iranian PGs minor damage 33
1987-10-01 Nichiharu Maru Japan 120694/73 Iranian PGs minor damage 33
1987-10-01 Johar Pakistan 49635/76 Iranian PGs minor damage 33
1987-10-01 Shenton Bluff Australia 150/79 Iraqi missile severe damage 33
1987-10-02 Felicity Cyprus 53226/68 Iraqi missile set afire 33
1987-10-02 Spic Emerald India 11712/83 Iranian PG set afire 33
1987-10-05 Brazil Star Panama 77294/72 Iraqi a/c minor damage 33
1987-10-05 Seawise Giant Liberia 238558/76 Iraqi a/c minor damage 33
1987-10-05 Shining Star Cyprus 128929/71 Iraqi missile severe damage 33
1987-10-05 World Admiral Liberia 106673/74 Iraqi missile minor damage 33
1987-10-08 Tomoe 8 Panama 5267/86 Iranian PG set afire 33
1987-10-10 Rova Liberia 105286/75 Iraqi missiles severe damage 33
1987-10-12 Marianthi M. Panama 13006/65 Iraqi missile damaged 33
1987-10-13 Atlantic Peace Liberia 43943/83 Iranian PG g/f minor damage 33
1987-10-14 Pegasus I Liberia 104918/73 Iraqi a/c damaged 33
1987-10-15 Sungari Liberia 124085/75 Iranian missile set afire 33
1987-10-16 Sea Isle City United States 55454/81 Iranian missile moderate damage 33
1987-10-23 Prosperventure L. Panama 27333/87 Iranian PG set afire 33
1987-11-04 Taftan Iran 141883/73 Iraqi a/c damaged 34
1987-11-06 Grand Wisdom Panama 51121/76 Iranian w/s minor damage 34
1987-11-11 Fortuneship L. Greece 118216/75 Iraqi GM (3) damaged 34
1987-11-11 Liquid Bulk Explorer Panama 7060/72 Iranian PG slight damage 34
1987-11-12 Yousefc Iran 584/84 Iraqi a/c hit 34
1987-11-13 Salvitald Singapore 742/76 Iraqi GM severe damage 34
1987-11-15 Lucy Liberia 36512/86 Iranian PG damaged 34
1987-11-16 Esso Freeport Bahamas 122967/74 Iranian PGs minor damage 34
1987-11-16 Filikon L. Greece 41330/76 Iranian PGs moderate damage 34
1987-11-19 Salvenusd Singapore 699/78 Iraqi GMs severe damage 34
1987-11-20 Tabriz Iran 41440/80 Iraqi a/c damaged 34
1987-11-22 Andromeda Greece 38627/84 Iranian PG damaged 34
1987-11-23 Fundulea Romania 6253/80 Iranian PGs damaged 34
1987-11-23 Uni-Master Panama 11648/77 Iranian w/s slight damage 34
1987-11-26 Umm al Jathathel Kuwait 47169/83 Iranian w/s Unknown 34
1987-11-29 Khark 4 Iran 127450/73 Iraqi a/c moderate damage 34
1987-12-02 Anax Cyprus 122936/72 Iraqi a/c slight damage 34
1987-12-04 Actinia Cyprus 109567/75 Iraqi a/c severe damage 34
1987-12-06 Estelle Mærsk Denmark 28010/87 Iranian PGs minor damage 34
1987-12-06 Norman Atlantic Singapore 42093/73 Iranian PGs sunk 34
1987-12-08 Alamoot Iran 163173/77 Iraqi a/c severe damage 34
1987-12-09 Susangird Iran 111287/73 Iraqi a/c severe damage 34
1987-12-11 Tharaleos Greece 51372/69 Iranian FF minor damage 34
1987-12-12 Pivot Cyprus 109700/75 Iranian FF damaged 34
1987-12-15 Mimi M. Cyprus 16246/74 Iraqi a/c severe damage 34
1987-12-16 Taftan Iran 141883/73 Iraqi a/c minor damage 34
1987-12-16 World Produce Greece 17277/84 Iranian PG moderate damage 34
1987-12-17 Island Transporter Maldives 9714/68 Iranian PGs damaged 34
1987-12-18 Free Enterprise Malta 113780/72 Iraqi a/c went aground 34
1987-12-18 Happy Kari Norway 140227/74 Iranian PGs set afire 34
1987-12-18 Saudi Splendour Liberia 125394/75 Iranian PG moderate damage 34
1987-12-19 Karama Mærsk Denmark 167728/77 Iranian PGs slight damage 34
1987-12-22 British Respect Gibraltar 136601/74 Iraqi a/c set afire 34
1987-12-22 Burmah Enterprise Bermuda 231629/78 Iraqi a/c severe damage 34
1987-12-22 Seawise Giant Liberia 238558/76 Iraqi a/c set afire 34
1987-12-22 World Petrobras Liberia 193778/77 Iraqi a/c damaged 34
1987-12-22 Stena Concordia Liberia 122199/73 Iranian FF damaged 34
1987-12-23 Berge Big Norway 136364/75 Iranian PGs set afire 34
1987-12-25 Hyundai No. 7 South Korea 11686/78 Iranian PGs set afire 34
1987-12-25 Nejmat el Petrol Saudi Arabia 12964/64 Iranian PGs set afire 34
1987-12-27 Stilikon Panama 96747/64 Iraqi GM set afire 34
1987-12-31 Iran Sedaghat Iran 4474/71 Iraqi a/c decoy 34

1988

1988-01-01 to 1988-03-27
Date Vessel attacked Agent Result Ref
Name Flag GRT/Date
1988-01-01 Alga Malta 16134/72 Iraqi GM slight damage 34
1988-01-10 Khark 3 Iran 137895/71 Iraqi a/c minor damage 34
1988-01-12 United Venture Cyprus 13161/69 Iranian GM severe damage 34
1988-01-14 Petrobulk Pioneer Liberia 20446/80 Iranian w/s damaged aft 34
1988-01-15 Atlantic Charisma Liberia 23127/87 Iranian w/s damaged 34
1988-01-15 Igloo Espoo Norway 10105/85 Iranian PGs damaged 34
1988-01-16 Rainbow Liberia 7589/82 Iranian PGs severe damage 34
1988-01-22 Havpile Singapore 10977/69 Iranian PG minor damage 34
1988-01-22 Topaz Panama 85690/76 Iranian PGs minor damage 34
1988-01-22 Torm Rottina Denmark 20036/76 Iranian PGs attacked 35
1988-01-27 Coral Cape Cyprus 112825/74 Iraqi imissile damaged 35
1988-01-29 Khark Iran 116404/75 Iraqi a/c minor damage 35
1988-01-29 Khark 5 Iran 138394/75 Iraqi a/c minor damage 35
1988-01-30 Maree Panama 9111/72 Iranian PGs sunk 35
1988-02-03 Makran Iran 16000/74 Iraqi missile set afire 35
1988-02-03 Petrobulk Ruler Norway 20505/75 Iranian PG damaged 35
1988-02-05 Tavistock Panama 87464/71 Iranian PGs damaged 35
1988-02-07 Khark 5 Iran 138394/75 Iraqi a/c set afire 35
1988-02-07 Diane Liberia 38241/87 Iranian FF set afire 35
1988-02-09 Shir Kooh Iran 140465/73 Iraqi a/c damaged 35
1988-02-09 Veronique Liberia 38795/76 Iranian FF damaged aft 35
1988-02-11 Happy Kari Norway 38795/76 Iranian PGs set afire 35
1988-02-12 Kate Mærske Denmark 167207/76 Iraqi a/c set afire 35
1988-02-15 Soleiman Iran 1019/84 Iraqi a/c severe damage 35
1988-03-08 Tenacity Malta 41195/65 Iraqi a/c minor damage 35
1988-03-15 Trade Fortitude Liberia 113950/72 Iraqi a/c damaged 35
1988-03-18 Berge Lord Norway 138008/73 Iranian PGs minor damage 35
1988-03-18 Kyrnicos Cyprus 41922/67 Iraqi a/c moderate damage 35
1988-03-18 Maria 2 Panama 22845/80 Iranian PGs set afire 35
1988-03-18 Neptune Subaru Singapore 22845/80 Iranian PGs minor damage 35
1988-03-19 Avaj Iran 162028/75 Iraqi a/c severe damage 35
1988-03-19 Sanandaj Iran 129770/73 Iraqi a/c severe damage 35
1988-03-20 Atlantic Peace Liberia 43943/83 Iranian PGs minor damage 35
1988-03-21 Fumi Liberia 36674/84 Iranian PGs set afire 35
1988-03-21 Iberian Reefer Spain 7949/85 Iranian PGs minor damage 35
1988-03-22 Havglimt Singapore 28941/78 Iranian w/s minor damage 35
1988-03-22 Stavros G.L. Greece 163810/76 Iranian PGs set afire 35
1988-03-23 Odysseas H. Cyprus 18876/72 Iranian PGs severe damagea 35
1988-03-27 Jainarayan Vyas India 15035/75 Iranian PGs moderate damage 35
1988-03-28 to 1988-08-04
Date Vessel attacked Agent Result Ref
Name Flag GRT/Date
1988-03-28 Karama Mærsk Denmark 167728/77 Iranian PGs minor damage 35
1988-03-28 Golar Kansai Liberia 98905/72 Iranian PGs minor damage 35
1988-03-30 Anax Cyprus 122936/72 Iraqi a/c disabled 35
1988-03-31 Haven Cyprus 109700/73 Iraqi FF aground 35
1988-04-12 Sagheera Saudi Arabia 20817/81 Iranian PGs set afire 36
1988-04-18 Omnium Pride Cyprus 13858/71 Iranian PGs set afire 36
1988-04-18 Willi Tide United States 283/79 Iran attacked 36
1988-04-18 York Marine British Hong Kong 60814/75 Iranian w/s set afire 36
1988-04-19 Fal V United Arab Emirates 7214/72 Iranian PGs damaged 36
1988-04-24 Sea Trader Liberia 19482/76 Iranian PGs minor damage 36
1988-05-11 Khark Iran 116404/75 Iraqi a/c damaged 36
1988-05-11 Iran Nahad Iran 11205/70 Iraqi a/c severe damage 36
1988-05-12 Sea Sapphiref Panama 11205/70 Iraqi a/c severe damage 36
1988-05-14 Argosy Cyprus 71080/70 Iraqi a/c severe damage 36
1988-05-14 Barcelona Spain 122770/72 Iraqi a/c severe damage 36
1988-05-14 Beaufortg Belgium 475/78 Iraqi a/c severe damage 36
1988-05-14 Safirg Belgium 475/78 Iraqi a/c severe damage 36
1988-05-14 Scan Partnerg Panama 499/79 Iraqi a/c sunk 36
1988-05-14 Seawise Giant Liberia 238558/79 Iraqi a/c severe damage 36
1988-05-14 Burmah Endeavour Bahamas 231269/77 Iraqi a/c minor damage 36
1988-05-16 Bisoton Iran 112445/72 Iraqi a/c minor damage 36
1988-05-18 Ace Chemi Panama 112445/72 Iranian PGs set afire 36
1988-05-19 Barge Strand Norway 43849/82 Iranian PGs minor damage 36
1988-05-26 Mundogas Rio Liberia 12251/67 Iranian PGs damaged 36
1988-05-26 Don Miguel Malta 10526/76 Iranian PGs damaged 36
1988-06-04 Shoush Iran 113788/72 Iraqi a/c Unknown 36
1988-06-09 Salvervec Singapore 742/76 Iraqi a/c damaged 36
1988-06-11 Dhaulagiri West Germany 7895/82 Iranian PGs minor damage 36
1988-06-11 Esso Demetia United Kingdom 125293/73 Iranian PGs minor damage 36
1988-06-11 Iran Fallahi Iran 17716/72 Iraq a/c Unknown 36
1988-06-14 Neptune Subaru Singapore 51894/86 Iranian PGs moderate damage 36
1988-07-01 Khark 4 Iran 127450/73 Iraqi a/c damaged 36
1988-07-01 Fortuneship L Greece 118216/75 Iraqi a/c damaged 36
1988-07-03 Berge Strand Norway 43849/82 Iranian PGs minor damage 36
1988-07-07 Fellowship L Greece 118215/74 Iraqi a/c set afire 36
1988-07-08 Star Ray Cyprus 107432/70 Iraqi a/c set afire 36
1988-07-12 Universal Monarch Panama 40840/81 Iranian PGs damaged 36
1988-07-15 Sea Victory Liberia 43456/69 Iranian PGs minor damage 36
1988-08-04 Berge Lord Norway 138008/73 Iranian PGs minor damage 36
Notes

Notes

  1. constructive loss
  2. Sold off and renamed Canari, exploded while scrapping on 1986-08-11. See:zh-tw:大仁宮廢船爆炸事件
  3. tug
  4. salvage tug
  5. hit in error
  6. tug towing Iran Nahad
  7. tugs damaged by explosion of Barcelona
References

References

Footnotes

  1. O'Rourke, Ronald (May 1988). "The Tanker War". Proceedings of the USNI. 114 (5): 1023. Archived from the original on 30 November 2024. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  2. Strømmen-Bakhtiar, Abbas. Introduction to Digital Transformation: and its impact on society. Informing Science Press. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-68110-050-0.
  3. Boczek 1989, p. 244.
  4. Roach, J. Ashley; Greenwood, Christopher J.; Lagoni, Rainer; Meron, Theodor (20–23 April 1988), "Missiles on Target; the Law of Targeting and the Tanker War", Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting, 82: 154–169, doi:10.1017/S0272503700072980, JSTOR 25658421, S2CID 159309793
  5. Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Iran–Iraq War: 1980–1988. Osprey Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-84176-371-2.
  6. Dudley, William S. (2007), "Navies, Great Powers – United States, 1775 to the Present – The tanker war", in Hattendorf, John J. (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195130751.001.0001, ISBN 9780195307405, archived from the original on 28 September 2018, retrieved 22 August 2020
  7. Leckow 1988, p. 636.
  8. Trainor, Bernard E. (14 August 1987). "Gulf Risks: Mines and Suicide Boats". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 May 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  9. Leckow 1988, p. 637.
  10. Leckow 1988, p. 639.
  11. Dekker & Post 1992, p. 191.
  12. Phillips, Stephen (20 March 2024). "Revisiting the Tanker War". War on the Rocks. Archived from the original on 26 September 2024. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
  13. Brummer, Alex; Hirst, David (19 May 1987). "US navy ordered to hit back after Exocet kills 28". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
  14. data sieve minimum of 5
  15. Herman, Arthur (7 March 1984), "Two cargo ships were hit by Iraqi missiles", United Press International, archived from the original on 27 November 2024, retrieved 22 August 2020
  16. "The Charming (Iraqi Attack) (Hansard, 8 March 1984)". api.parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 14 September 2024. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
  17. M.Daly, Thomas (May 1985). "The Enduring Gulf War". US Naval Institute. Archived from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
  18. "Written Answers [4 MAY, 1984] to Questions" (PDF).
  19. Silverstone 1984
  20. Silverstone 1985b
  21. "Iranians Bomb Tanker From India in the Gulf", The New York Times, Associated Press, 13 October 1984, archived from the original on 30 January 2018, retrieved 22 August 2020
  22. "Liquefied Gas Ship Set Ablaze in Gulf", The New York Times, Reuters, 14 October 1984, archived from the original on 30 January 2018, retrieved 22 August 2020
  23. Middleton, Drew (21 October 1984), "Gulf War: Iran's Push is Limited", The New York Times, archived from the original on 30 January 2018, retrieved 22 August 2020
  24. "Auke Visser's International Super Tankers". Archived from the original on 17 August 2025. Retrieved 26 May 2025.
  25. "Casualty Return 1985" (PDF). Lloyd's register of shipping. p. 114.
  26. Zatarain 2008, p. 91-92.
  27. "Texaco Supertanker Loaded With Iranian Oil Hits Mine : Cargo Leak, None Hurt, Owner Says". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 10 August 1987. Archived from the original on 25 January 2024. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
  28. Phillips, John (10 August 1987). "A U.S.-operated supertanker hit a mine outside the Persian..." United Press International. Archived from the original on 17 August 2025. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
  29. Phillips, John (10 August 1987). "U.S.-run tanker hits mine outside Persian Gulf". United Press International. Archived from the original on 17 August 2025. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
  30. Zatarain 2008, p. 92.
  31. Reed, Jack (15 August 1987). "A mine in the Gulf of Oman sank a..." United Press International. Archived from the original on 17 August 2025. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
  32. Phillips, Jason (16 August 1987). "The amphibious assault carrier USS Guadalcanal has arrived off..." United Press International. Archived from the original on 17 August 2025. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
  33. Silverstone 1988a
  34. Silverstone 1988b
  35. Silverstone 1988c
  36. Silverstone 1989

Sources

  • Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (1989). "Law of Warfare at Sea and Neutrality:Lessons from the Gulf War". Ocean Development and International Law. 20 (3): 239–271. doi:10.1080/00908328909545892.
  • Dekker, Ige F.; Post, Harry H. G., eds. (1992). The Gulf War of 1980-1988: The Iran-Iraq War in International Legal Perspective. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 0-7923-1334-8.
  • Leckow, Ross (July 1988). "The Iran-Iraq Conflict in the Gulf: The Law of War Zones". International & Comparative Law Quarterly. 37 (3): 629–644. doi:10.1093/iclqaj/37.3.629.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1984). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 21 (4): 396. JSTOR 44891106.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1985b). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 22 (2): 145–146. JSTOR 44891147.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1988a). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 25 (1): 37. JSTOR 44889197.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1988b). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 25 (2): 195. JSTOR 44891248.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1988c). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 25 (4): 402. JSTOR 44892028.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1989). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 26 (1): 83. JSTOR 44892063.
  • Zatarain, Lee Allen (2008). Tanker War: America's First Conflict with Iran, 1987–88. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 9781932033847.
Further reading

Further reading

  • El-Shazly, Nadia El-Sayed (1998), The Gulf Tanker War: Iran and Iraq's Maritime Swordplay, Springer, ISBN 9781349263042
  • Navias, Martin S.; Hooton, E. R. (1996), Tanker Wars: Assault on Merchant Shipping During the Iran-Iraq Crisis, 1980-88, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 9781860640322
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1985a). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 22 (1): 51. JSTOR 44888933.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1985c). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 22 (3): 306. JSTOR 44891192.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1985d). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 22 (4): 399. JSTOR 44891899.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1986a). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 23 (1): 30. JSTOR 44894586.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1986b). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 23 (2): 140. JSTOR 44889022.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1986c). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 23 (3): 271. JSTOR 44891948.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1986d). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 23 (4): 378. JSTOR 44889078.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1987a). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 24 (1): 71. JSTOR 44889099.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1987b). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 24 (2): 164. JSTOR 44894620.
  • Silverstone, Paul H. (1987c). "Naval Intelligence". Warship International. 24 (4): 358. JSTOR 44891264.
  • Walker, George K. (2000), "The Tanker War, 1980–88: Law and Policy", International Law Studies, 74, U.S. Naval War College
  • Wang, Erik B. (1995). "The Iran-Iraq War Revisited: Some Reflections on the Role of International Law". Canadian Yearbook of International Law. 32.
See also

See also