List of Brutalist structures

Brutalism is an architectural style that spawned from the modernist architectural movement and which flourished from the 1950s to the 1970s. The following list provides numerous examples of this architectural style worldwide.

• La Pyramide (building), Abidjan (1973)¹

• Kenyatta International Convention Centre, Nairobi (1973)²
• University of Nairobi Mombasa Town Campus
• Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi (1952)

• Sierra Leone House of Parliament, Freetown (1967)

• Brixton Tower, Johannesburg (1962)
• Joburg Theatre, Johannesburg (1962)
• Johannesburg Central Police Station, Johannesburg (1968)
• Hillbrow Tower, Johannesburg (1968)
• University of South Africa, Muckleneuk Campus, Tshwane (1972)
• Ponte Tower, Johannesburg (1975)³
• Auckland Park Campus, University of Johannesburg (1975)
• South African State Theatre, Tshwane (1981)
• Grand Central Water Tower Midrand, Midrand (1997)⁴

• CCTV Headquarters, Beijing, Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA), (2012)⁵
• Lhasa railway station, Lhasa, Cui Kai, (2006)⁶
• Long Museum, Shanghai, Liu Yichun, Atelier Deshaus, (2014)⁷
• Ningbo Museum, Wang Shu (2008)⁷⁸
• Shenzhen Stock Exchange, Shenzhen, Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA), (2013)⁹
• Sifang Art Museum, Nanjing, Steven Holl, (2001)¹⁰

• Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (Dhaka National Assembly), Dhaka, Louis Kahn, (1982)¹¹

• Palika Kendra, New Delhi, Kuldip Singh and Mahendra Raj, (1984)
• Secretariat Building, Chandigarh, Le Corbusier, (1953)
• Tagore Memorial Hall, Ahmedabad, B. V. Doshi, (1971)

• Andalas University, Padang (1955)
• Wisma Intiland, Surabaya, Paul Rudolph (1997)¹²¹³
• Library of Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung (1985)
• Bank Indonesia, Semarang (1992)
• Wisma Hayam Wuruk, Jakarta (1976)
• Bina Manajemen Building, Jakarta (1972)
• Ali Sadikin Building, Ismail Marzuki Park, Jakarta (2019)

• Al Zaqura Building, Baghdad, (1975)

• Tel Aviv-Yafo City Hall, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Menachem Cohen, (1956–1964)
• Basilica of the Annunciation, Nazareth, Giovanni Muzio, (1960–1969)
• Mivtachim Sanitarium, Zikhron Ya'akov, Yaakov Rechter, (1966)
• The Humanities Building, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Raffi Ripper, Amnon Niv, Natan Magen, (1968)
• Carlton Tel Aviv, (1977)

• Tower House, Tokyo, Takamitsu Azuma, (1967)

• The Egg, also known as "The Dome" and "the Soap," Beirut, Joseph Philippe Karam, (1968)

• University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Dato' Kington Loo/CHR Bailey (1966)
  • Dewan Tunku Canselor
  • Experimental Theatre
  • Faculty of Business and Economics Block H11
  • Faculty of Business and Economics Undergraduate Office
• Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Building
• National University of Malaysia
• Central Bank of Malaysia

• Tanghalang Pambansa (National Theater), Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex, Pasay, Philippines (Leandro V. Locsin, 1969)
• Philippine International Convention Center, Manila, Philippines (Leandro V. Locsin)
• Ninoy Aquino International Airport Terminal 1, Parañaque, Philippines (Leandro V. Locsin)
• San Miguel Corporation Head Office Complex, Pasig, Philippines

• Singapore Power Building, Singapore, Group 2 Architects, (1971)
• Golden Mile Complex, Singapore, DP Architects, (1973)

• Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum, Hanoi, Garol Isakovich, (1975)¹⁴
• Independence Palace, Ho Chi Minh City, Ngô Viết Thụ (1966)¹⁵

• CBR Building, Watermael-Boitsfort, Brussels (Constantin Brodzki, 1970)¹⁶

• Festivalna (Felatival) Hall (1968), Sofia;
• Sofia Hall (1968), Sofia;
• Diplomatic Blocs (1973), Joliot Curie str., Sofia;
• Sofia Central Station, Sofia, Bulgaria (1974)
• Kambanite Monument (1979), Sofia;

• National Palace of Culture (1981), Sofia
• Buzludzha Monument, Balkan Mountains, Bulgaria (1981)
• Monument to 1300 Years of Bulgaria, Shumen (1981)
• Large aviary, bear area and other structures at the Sofia Zoo (1982);
• Sports complex "Cherveno zname” (Red Flag) (1985)
• Building 2 (“The Transistor”) of the International House of the Journalists, Varna.

• See Brutalist architecture in the Czech Republic

• Hans Christian Ørsted Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark, (Eva Koppel, 1955–1962)
• Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark, (Eva Koppel, 1961–1975)
• Panum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark (Eva Koppel, 1966–1986)

• Linnahall, Tallinn, Estonia (Raine Karp, Riina Altmäe, 1975–1980)
• National Library of Estonia, Tallinn, Estonia (Raine Karp, 1985–1993)

Brutalism in France emerged during post-World War II reconstruction. Facing an acute shortage of decent housing and severe material shortages after the war,¹⁷ France needed to rebuild a huge stock of destroyed infrastructure and housing. Le Corbusier’s completion of the Cité Radieuse in Marseille in 1952 démonstrated that concrete could be used to create functional "cities within a city." Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the French government adopted the Brutalist approach for many of its state-sponsored projects, including social housing complexes (the grands ensembles), university facilities, administrative offices and other public buildings. However, by the late 1970s, the Brutalist movement began to lose momentum, due in part to its buildings’ rapid, physical deterioration and tendency to create ghettos.¹⁸¹⁹²⁰ Despite this, several major Brutalist projects have received one of the two protected statuses given by the French Ministry of Culture.²¹²²²³

• Unité d'Habitation de Marseille (Cité Radieuse), Marseille, France (Le Corbusier, 1952)
• Maisons Jaoul, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France (Le Corbusier, 1954–1956)
• UNESCO Headquarters, 7th arrondissement of Paris, (Bernard Zehrfuss (France), Marcel Breuer (Hungary), and Pier Luigi Nervi (Italy, inaugurated in 1958)
• Sainte Marie de La Tourette, Lyon, France (Le Corbusier and Iannis Xenakis, 1960)
• Église Saint-Jean-Baptiste de la Rechèvre, Chartres (Jean Redreau, completed 1962)
• Flaine, France. (Designed by Marcel Breuer, the entire assembly of hotels, shops, apartment blocks and administrative buildings of Flaine-Forum comprise a themed but varied entity), completed 1969
• Université Toulouse 1 Capitole, Toulouse (Georges Candilis, Alexis Josic, Shadrach Woods, completed 1970)
• Centre National de la Danse, Pantin (1972)

• Les Choux de Créteil, Créteil (Gérard Grandval, completed 1974)
• Auditorium Maurice-Ravel, Lyon (1975)
• Bourse de Travail, Bobigny (Oscar Niemeyer, completed 1978)
• Headquarters of the French Communist Party,19th arrondissement of Paris (Oscar Niemeyer, inaugurated in 1971, but completed 1980)
• Orgues de Flandre, 19th arrondissement of Paris (fr:Martin van Treeck, completed 1980)
• Les Étoiles d'Ivry, Ivry-sur-Seine (Jean Renaudie and Renée Gailhoustet, completed 1981)
• Espace Oscar Niemeyer (Le Volcan), Le Havre, the complex includes the fr:Biibliothèque Oscar-Niemeyer (Oscar Niemeyer, completed 1982)
• Les Arènes de Picasso (fr:Arènes de Picasso), Noisy-le-Grand (fr:Manuel Nuñez Yanowsky, completed 1985)

• Bank of Georgia headquarters, Tbilisi, Georgia (1975)

• Ruhr University Bochum, Germany (Hentrich, Petschnigg & Partner, 1964)
• University of Regensburg, Regensburg (1965)
• AfE-Turm, Frankfurt am Main (Staatliches Universitätsbauamt, Staatliche Neubauleitung Frankfurt, 1972) (demolished 2014)
• Friedenskirche, Monheim-Baumberg (1974)
• Main building of the University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld (1971–1976)
• Embassy of People's Republic of Czechoslovakia in Berlin, Germany (Věra and Vladimír Machonin, 1978)
• Research Institute for Experimental Medicine (Mouse Bunker, or Mäusebunker) Berlin, Germany (Gerd Hänska, Kurt Schmersow, Magdalena Hänska, 1971-1981)

• Broadcasting House (the headquarters of the Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation), Athens, Greece (1969)
• Porto Carras Resort, Chalkidiki, Greece (Walter Gropius, posthum built 1973)
• School of Theology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, L. Kalivites and G. Leonardos, 1976²⁴

• Central Plaza, Dublin. Originally the Central Bank of Ireland Building (1978)
• Phibsborough Tower, Dublin²⁵

• Torre Velasca, Milan, Italy, (BBPR group 1954)
• Hotel DUPARC Contemporary Suites, Turin, Italy (Laura Petrazzini, 1971)
• Embassy of the United Kingdom, Rome, Italy, (Basil Spence, 1968)
• Nuovo Villaggio Matteotti, Terni, Italy (Giancarlo De Carlo, 1969-1974)

• Seimas Palace (1980)

• Moldova National Opera Ballet, Chișinău, Moldova (1980)
• Moldova Presidential Residence, Chișinău, Moldova (1987)

• 'Młotek' residential building, 8 Smolna Street in Warsaw, Poland (1964, by Jan Bogusławski, Bohdan Gniewiewski)
• Bunkier Sztuki gallery, Kraków, Poland (Krystyna Tołłoczko-Różyska, Antoni Hajdecki, 1965)
• Mausoleum of the Majdanek concentration camp, Poland (Wiktor Tołkin, Janusz Dembek, 1969)
• Spodek, Katowice, Poland (1971)
• Katowice railway station, Katowice, Poland (Wacław Kłyszewski, Jerzy Mokrzyński and Eugeniusz Wierzbicki a.k.a. "The Tigers", 1972)
• Hala Olivia, Gdańsk, Poland (1972)
• Forest Hotel (former Jagiellonian University guesthouse; Tomasz Mańkowski and Dariusz Kozłowski, 1976-1991)²⁶
• Forum Hotel, Kraków, Poland (Janusz Ingarden, 1978–1989)
• Church of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross and Our Lady of Health of the Sick in Katowice, Poland (Henryk Buszko, Aleksander Franta, (1991)

• Palace of Justice, Lisbon, Portugal (Januário Godinho and João Andresen, 1970)
• Casino Park Hotel, Funchal, Portugal (Oscar Niemeyer and Viana de Lima, 1976)

• Administrative Palace, Satu Mare, Romania (Nicolae Porumbescu, 1984)
• TVR Tower, Bucharest, Romania (Calea Dorobanților, 1968)
• Grand Hotel, Bucharest, Romania (Nicolae Bălcescu 4, 1971)
• National Theatre Bucharest, Romania (Nicolae Bălcescu 2, 1973)
• Building of Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania (Splaiul Independenței 313, 1969)
• Romano-Catholic church from Orșova, Orșova, Romania (1970)

• RIA Novosti headquarter, former press-center of 1980 Summer Olympics, Moscow, (1976–1979)
• TASS building, Moscow, V. S. Egerev, (1977)
• House of Soviets (Kaliningrad), (1985)

• Novobeogradski blokovi (Blocks 22, 23, 28, 30, 61, 62, 63), Belgrade, Serbia (1948–1990)
• Museum of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, Serbia (1962)
• Toblerone building, Belgrade, Serbia (1963)
• Avala Tower, Belgrade, Serbia (1965; 2009)
• New Belgrade town hall, Belgrade, Serbia (1967)
• 25 May Sportcenter, Belgrade, Serbia (1975)
• Eastern City Gate, Belgrade, Serbia (1976)
• County Court, Požarevac, Serbia (1976)
• Western City Gate, Belgrade, Serbia (1977)
• County Court, Sremska Mitrovica (1979)
• Zlatibor Hotel, Užice, Serbia (1981)

• Torres Blancas, Madrid, Spain (1968)
• Facultades de Ciencias Biológicas y Geológicas (Universidad Complutense de Madrid), Madrid (Francisco Fernández Longoria, 1965–1968)
• Walden 7 building, Sant Just Desvern - Barcelona, Spain (Ricardo Bofill, 1975)
• Facultad de Ciencias de la Información (Universidad Complutense de Madrid), Madrid, (José María Laguna Martínez and Juan Castañón Fariña, 1979)

• City Library, Norrköping, (Sten Samuelsson, 1971)
• Villa Göth, Uppsala, Sweden (Bengt Edman and Lennart Holm, 1950)

• University of St. Gallen Campus Rosenberg, St. Gallen (Walter Maria Förderer, 1957–1963)
• Therme Vals Spa Building, Vals, Switzerland (Peter Zumthor, 1993–1996)
• Swiss Medical Research Foundation (La Tulipe), Geneva (Jack Bertoli, 1976)
• Villa Dominik von Streng, Hitzligen, Mauensee, ([Georges-Pierre Dubois, 1963-1964])

• Abdi İpekçi Arena, İstanbul (Ragıp Buluç, Ziya Tanalı and Ercan Yener, 1978–1989)
• Atatürk Cultural Center, İstanbul (Tabanlıoğlu Architects, 1956–1969)
• Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus (Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, Sedat Hakkı Eldem and Gordon Bunshaft, 1951–1955)²⁷
• Turkish Historical Society Main Building, Ankara (Turgut Cansever and Ertur Yener, 1951–1967)
• Middle East Technical University Campus, Ankara (Behruz and Altuğ Çinici, 1961–1964)²⁸

Many of the notable surviving brutalist buildings in England are listed on the National Heritage List for England. Inclusion on the list is based on a building's "special architectural and historic interest", with "particularly careful selection required" for buildings constructed after 1945 (i.e. all brutalist structures).²⁹ There are three grades of listed building: grade I for buildings "of exceptional interest", grade II* for "particularly important buildings of more than special interest" and grade II for buildings "of special interest".²⁹ Buildings may also be locally listed by planning authorities as non-designated heritage assets.³⁰ Buildings may also be granted a certificate of immunity from listing for a period of five years, allowing a building to be developed or demolished in the knowledge that it will not be subject to listing in that period.³¹ A certificate of immunity was issued for the Robin Hood Gardens Estate in 2009 and then again in 2015, prior to its demolition in 2017, after Historic England determined that it "[did] not meet the very high threshold for listing".³² Listing has not always prevented the demolition of buildings, such as Imperial College London's Southside Halls of Residence that was demolished in 2005 after the university presented structural engineers' reports – disputed by reports from other structural engineers – that the building was failing and could not be repaired.³³³⁴³⁵

• Smithdon High School, Norfolk, Alison and Peter Smithson (1950–54); grade II* listed³⁶
• Dorman Long tower, Redcar (1955–56); Emergency listing granted 10 September 2021,³⁷³⁸ revoked by new secretary of state on 16 September 2021,³⁹⁴⁰ demolished 18 September 2021.⁴¹
• Langham House Close, James Stirling and James Gowan (1957–58); grade II* listed⁴²
• Department of Architecture extension, University of Cambridge, Colin St John Wilson and Alex Hardy with participation by students at the university (1959); grade II listed⁴³
• Weeks Hall, Imperial College London, Sheppard Robson and Partners (1957–58); grade II listed⁴⁴
• Park Hill, Sheffield, Ivor Smith & Jack Lynn (1957–60); grade II* listed⁴⁵
• The Beehives, St John's College, Oxford, Michael Powers of Architects' Co-Partnership (1958–60); grade II listed⁴⁶
• Crescent House Golden Lane Estate, London, Chamberlin, Powell and Bon (1958–62); grade II* listed⁴⁷
• Falmer House, University of Sussex, Basil Spence (1960–62); grade I listed,⁴⁸⁴⁹ and surrounding university buildings, Basil Spence (1956–71); grade II* listed⁵⁰
• Ringway Centre, Birmingham, James Roberts (1962); set for demolition as of 2023.⁵¹
• Eros House, Catford, Owen Luder (1960–63)⁵²

• Kingsgate Bridge, Durham, Ove Arup (1963); grade I listed⁵³
• Southside Halls of Residence, Imperial College London, Sheppard Robson (1963); grade II listed but demolished 2005³³³⁴³⁵
• St Aidan's College, Durham, Sir Basil Spence (1960–1964); locally listed⁵⁴⁵⁵⁵⁶
• The Economist group buildings, Alison and Peter Smithson (1960–64); grade II* listed⁵⁷
• Birmingham New Street Signal Box, Birmingham, Bicknell & Hamilton (1964); grade II listed⁵⁸
• Tricorn Centre, Portsmouth, Owen Luder (1964); Demolished in 2004⁵⁹
• Bull Ring Centre, Birmingham, (1964); Demolished in 2000⁶⁰
• Piccadilly Plaza, Manchester, Covell Matthews and Partners (1959–1965)
• Brighton and Hove National Spiritualist Church, Brighton, Bev Pike of Overton and Partners (1964–65)⁶¹
• Dunelm House, Durham Students' Union, Richard Raines of Architects' Co-Partnership (1964–66); grade II listed⁶²
• Hendon Hall Court, Owen Luder (1966)⁶³
• Buckinghamshire County Hall, Aylesbury, Frederick B. Pooley (1966)
• New County Hall, Truro, Francis Kenneth Hicklin & Alan J. Groves (1966); grade II listed⁶⁴
• Balfron Tower, London, Ernő Goldfinger (1965–1967); grade II* listed⁶⁵
• Stoke Newington School, Hackney, Stillman & Eastwick-Field Partnership (1967)
• Brunel University Lecture Centre, Uxbridge, Richard Sheppard, Robson and Partners (1965–66); grade II listed⁶⁶
• Churchill College, Cambridge, Sheppard Robson and Partners (1961–1968); grade II listed⁶⁷

• The 'ziggurats' at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, Sir Denys Lasdun (1964–68); grade II* listed⁶⁸⁶⁹

• Central Hall and Derwent College at the University of York, Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall & Partners (1962–68); all grade II listed⁷⁰⁷¹⁷²
• University of Essex, Main campus complex, Kenneth Capon of Architects' Co-Partnership (1964–1968)
• Southbank Centre (Queen Elizabeth Hall, Purcell Room and Hayward Gallery), London, Hubert Bennett & Jack Whittle (1967–68); certificate of immunity from listing issued 2020, expired 2025; recommended for listing on five occasions since 1991 but rejected;⁷³ listed as grade II in 2026.⁷⁴
• Mathematics Tower, Manchester, Scherrer & Hicks (1968); Demolished in 2005
• Finsbury Estate, London (1968)

• Apollo Pavilion, Peterlee, Victor Pasmore (1968), grade II listed⁷⁵
• South Norwood Library near Croydon, Surrey (1968)⁷⁶
• Garden building, St Hilda's College, Oxford, Alison and Peter Smithson (1968); grade II listed⁷⁷
• Middleton Grange Shopping Centre, Hartlepool (1969)
• Wyndham Court, Southampton (1969) grade II* listed⁷⁸

• Preston bus station, Preston, Keith Ingham & Charles Wilson (1968–1969); grade II listed⁷⁹
• The Trinity Centre Multi-Storey Car Park, a.k.a. The Get Carter Carpark, Gateshead, Owen Luder (1964–1969); Demolished in 2010
• Tyne Bridge Tower, Gateshead (1960s); Demolished in 2010
• Extension to Chartered Accountants' Hall, William Whitfield (1966–70); grade II* listed⁸⁰
• Pimlico School, London, John Bancroft (1967–1970); Demolished in 2010
• Leeds International Pool, Leeds, John Poulson (1970); Demolished in 2009
• Roger Stevens Building, University of Leeds, Chamberlin, Powell and Bon (1970); grade II* listed⁸¹
• Hyde Park Barracks, London, Sir Basil Spence (1970); listing refused 2015⁸²
• Denys Wilkinson Building, Oxford, Philip Dowson (1963–71); recommendation for listing declined in 2015.⁸³
• Pebble Mill Studios, Birmingham, John Madin (1971); Demolished in 2005⁸⁴

• Trellick Tower, London, Ernő Goldfinger (1968–1972); grade II* listed⁸⁵
• Blackheath Quaker Meeting House, London, Trevor Dannatt (1971–72); grade II listed⁸⁶
• High Point, Bradford, John Brunton Partnership (1972)⁸⁷
• Princes Hall, Aldershot, Hampshire, Building Design Partnership (1972)
• Robin Hood Gardens, London, Peter & Alison Smithson (1972); Demolished in 2017
• Westgate House, Newcastle Upon Tyne, Tyne & Wear (1972); Demolished in 2007
• School of Oriental and African Studies Philips Building, London, Sir Denys Lasdun (1973); grade II* listed⁸⁸
• Clifton Cathedral, Bristol, Ronald Weeks, E S Jennett and Antoni Poremba of the Percy Thomas Partnership (1969–1973); grade II* listed⁸⁹
• Titan House, The Northern School of Art, Hartlepool (1974)
• Birmingham Central Library, Birmingham, John Madin (1974); Demolished in 2015⁸²
• Grenfell Tower, London (1974); Currently shrouded post fire, awaiting outcome of investigation
• New Hall Place, Liverpool (1974)
• Guy's Hospital Tower, Southwark, London, Watkins Gray (1974)
• The Barbican Estate, London, Chamberlin, Powell and Bon (1964–1975); grade II listed⁹⁰
• Pollen wing, Downside Abbey, Francis Pollen (1970–75); grade II* listed⁹¹
• 50 Queen Anne's Gate, Ministry of Justice), London, Fitzroy Robinson & Partners with Basil Spence (1976)
• Royal National Theatre, London, (Sir Denys Lasdun (1969–76)⁹²
• Greyfriars bus station, Northampton (1976); Demolished in 2015⁸²
• Institute of Education building, London, Sir Denys Lasdun (1970–76); grade II* listed⁹³
• Brighton Centre, Brighton (1977)
• Alexandra Road Estate, London, Neave Brown of Camden Architects' Department (1972–78); grade II* listed⁹⁴
• Sampson House, Southwark, London, Fitzroy Robinson & Partners (1979); Demolished in 2018
• Woking Civic Offices, Woking, Surrey (1983)

• Ulster Museum, Botanic Gardens, Belfast, (1964–1972)

• Hudson Beare Lecture Theatre, University of Edinburgh King's Buildings, Edinburgh, (Robert Gardner-Medwin and Kingham Knight Associates, 1960)⁹⁵
• Cables Wynd House, Leith, (1962)

• Hutchesontown C multi-storey housing, Glasgow, (Basil Spence, 1962); Demolished in 1993.⁹⁶
• Netherdale football stadium, Galashiels, Scottish Borders, (Peter Womersley, 1963)
• Nuffield Transplantation Surgery Unit, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, {Peter Womersley, 1963)⁹⁷
• Cumbernauld town centre, Cumbernauld (1963–1967); Demolition begun 2024⁹⁸
• St Bride's Church,, East Kilbride, Glasgow, (Gillespie, Kidd and Coia, 1964)⁹⁹
• St. Peter's Seminary, Cardross, Dumbarton, (Gillespie, Kidd & Coia 1966)¹⁰⁰
• Glasgow-Abbotsinch Airport, Paisley, (Basil Spence, 1966)
• Dollan Aqua Centre, previously known as Dollan Baths, East Kilbride, Glasgow, (Alexander Buchanan Campbell, 1968)⁹⁵
• Andrew Melville Hall, St Andrews, (James Stirling, 1968)⁹⁶
• Canongate Flats, Edinburgh, (Basil Spence, 1969)⁹⁷
• Norco House, Aberdeen (Covell, Matthews and Partners, 1966–70)^10087101
• Bernat Klein Studio, Selkirk (Peter Womersley, 1972)⁸⁷
• The Mackintosh House, Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, Glasgow (1970s, "one of the only buildings in the world mixing brutalism and art nouveau")⁸⁷
• Bourdon Building, Glasgow School of Art, Glasgow (Keppie, Henderson and Partners, 1979)⁸⁷¹⁰²

• The Great Hall, Aberystwyth Arts Centre (1967-70); grade II* listed¹⁰³
• Crown Buildings, Cathays Park, Cardiff (1979)
• St David's Hall, Cardiff (1978–82): grade II listed¹⁰⁴

• Centennial Planetarium, Calgary, McMillan Long & Associates, (1967, now Contemporary Calgary)
• Education Centre Building, Calgary, Alberta, (1969)
• 404 Sixth Avenue SW, Calgary, (1970)

• MacMillan Bloedel Building, Vancouver, British Columbia, (Erickson/Massey Architects with Francis Donaldson, 1968)
• Simon Fraser University – Burnaby Campus, Burnaby, British Columbia, Arthur Erickson, (1965)
• University of Victoria - Craigdarroch Residences, Victoria, British Columbia, (1964–67)¹⁰⁵
• University of Victoria - Lansdowne Residences, Victoria, (1969)¹⁰⁶

• Centennial Concert Hall, Winnipeg, Manitoba (1968)
• Manitoba Theatre Centre, Winnipeg, Manitoba (Number Ten Architectural Group, 1972)
• Public Safety Building, Winnipeg, Manitoba (Libling Michener & Associates, 1965)

• Fenwick Tower, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Sydney P. Dumaresq, (1971)
• Killam Memorial Library, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Leslie R. Fairn, (1966–71)
• Allen Square building, 180 King St. S Waterloo (1980)
• Environment Canada, MSC Headquarters, Toronto, (1971)
• Lester B. Pearson Building, Ottawa, (1973)
• National Arts Centre, Ottawa, (1969)
• Oakville Centre for the Performing Arts, Oakville, Ontario (1977)

• Ontario Science Centre, Toronto, Ontario, (1969)
• Rochdale College, Toronto, Elmar Tampõld & John Wells, (1968)
• Toronto Metropolitan University - Toronto Metropolitan University Library, (1974)
• University of Guelph – Center, Main Library and South Residence/Maritime/Prairie Hall, Guelph, Ontario (John Andrews, 1965)
• University of Toronto Mississauga - William G. Davis Building, Mississauga, Raymond Moriyama, (1973)
• University of Toronto Scarborough - Humanities Wing, Science Wing, Toronto, both John Andrews, (1964)
• University of Toronto St. George - John P. Robarts Research Library, Toronto, A.S. Mathers & E.J. Haldenby, (1973)
• University of Waterloo - Mathematics and Computer Building, Waterloo, (1968)
• University of Western Ontario - D. B. Weldon Library, London, Ontario, (1972)
• Waterloo Public Library - Main Branch, Albert St, Waterloo (1966)
• Walter Carsen Centre, Toronto, Arthur Erickson, (1984)

• Édifice Marie-Guyart, Québec City, (1972)
• Habitat 67, 1967 World's Fair, Montreal, Quebec, Moshe Safdie, (1967)
• Place Bonaventure, Montreal, Quebec, Ray Affleck, (1967)

• University of Saskatchewan - Main Library, Education Building, Health Sciences Building, Saskatoon, (1970)

• Embassy of the United States, Havana, (1953)

• Museo Tamayo Arte Contemporáneo, Mexico City, Abraham Zabludovsky and Teodoro González de León, (1981)

• Council House, Perth (Howlett & Bailey, 1962)
• Macquarie University, Sydney, (1964)
• Macquarie University Library, Sydney, (1967–1978)
• Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre, Melbourne (Kevin Borland and Daryl Jackson, 1969)
• Llewellyn Hall, Canberra, (Daryl Jackson and Evan Walker, 1970)
• National Carillon, Canberra, (Cameron, Chisholm & Nicol, 1970)
• Cameron Offices, Canberra, (John Andrews, 1972)
• Perth Concert Hall, Perth (Howlett & Bailey, 1973)
• Biochemistry Building G08, University of Sydney (1973)
• Concrete bus shelters in Canberra (Clem Cummings, 1975 to early 1990s)
• Curtin Business School, Curtin University of Technology, Perth
• Sirius Building, Sydney (1978–79)
• High Court of Australia Building, Canberra (Edwards Madigan Torzillo and Briggs, 1980)
• UTS Tower, University of Technology, Sydney, (1979)
• National Gallery of Australia, Canberra, (James Johnson Sweeney and James Mollison (1982)
• Performing Arts Centre, Geelong, (1983)
• Queensland Cultural Centre, Brisbane, (1985)

• Moana Pool, Dunedin (1964)
• Christchurch College, Christchurch (Sir Miles Warren, 1964)
• Alexandra District Court, Alexandra (1972)
• Hannah Playhouse, Wellington (James Beard, 1973)
• Puaka–James Hight Building, University of Canterbury, Christchurch (1974)
• Richardson Building, University of Otago, Dunedin (Ted McCoy, 1979)
• Dunedin Public Hospital, Dunedin (1980)
• Te Puna Mātauranga o Aotearoa National Library of New Zealand (1987)

• Chacarita Cemetery Subterranean / Sixth Pantheon, Buenos Aires, (1950–1958)
• Republica Building, Buenos Aires, (1951–1954)
• Santa Maria de Betania Parish, Buenos Aires, (1954)
• Santa Catalina de Alejandria Church, Buenos Aires, (1957–1968)

• Banco de Londres y América del Sur Headquarters, Buenos Aires, Clorindo Testa, (1959)
• University Campus / Pavilion II, Buenos Aires, (1961)
• Della Penna School, Buenos Aires, (1963–1969)
• Argentine Automobile Club - Once, Buenos Aires, (1968)
• Argentine Automobile Club - Palermo, Buenos Aires, (1968)
• Telefónica Inclán, Buenos Aires, (1968)
• Dorrego Tower, Buenos Aires, (1968–1971)
• Nuestra Señora del Valle Parish, Buenos Aires, (1969)
• Acoyte Complex, Buenos Aires, (1969)
• Rioja Complex, Buenos Aires, (1969–1973)
• Institute of the Argentine Federal Police, Buenos Aires, (1974)
• Castex Tower, Buenos Aires, (1975–1985)
• Parking Marcelo T. De Alvear 686, Buenos Aires, (1970s)
• Arribeños 1630, Buenos Aires, (1970s)
• Arribeños 1684, Buenos Aires, (1970s)
• San Pauls School, Buenos Aires, (1970s)
• Normal High School No.1, Buenos Aires, (1970s)
• Rodriguez Peña 2043 Building, Buenos Aires, (1975–1978)
• Colpayo 54/56, Buenos Aires, (1978)
• River Plate Monumental Stadium, Buenos Aires, (1978–1982)
• Brazilian Embassy, Buenos Aires, (1978–1989)
• National Library of the Argentine Republic, Buenos Aires, Clorindo Testa, (1992)

• Alas Complex, Córdoba, (1974)

• Teatro Argentino de La Plata, La Plata, (1999)

• The General Post Office (GPO), Bridgetown, Barbados. (1984)

• São Paulo Metro, São Paulo, (1974–1980)
• Catedral Metropolitana de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná, (1958–1972)

• National Congress of Chile, Valparaíso, (1990)

• Bank of Guyana (1965)

• The Petroperú Building, Lima
• Museo de la Nación, Lima
• University of Engineering and Technology, Lima
• es: Centro Cívico de Lima, Lima

• El Helicoide, Caracas, (1955)
• Torre Phelps, Caracas, (1968)
• Edificio Altolar, Caracas, (1966)
• Iglesia San Juan Bosco, Caracas, (1967)
• Cuerpo de Bomberos del D.C, Caracas, (1967)
• Torre El Universal, Caracas, (1969)
• Centro Comercial Los Cedros, Caracas, (1970)
• Residencias Alpha, Caracas, (1970s)
• Torre CTV, Caracas, (1970s)
• Centro Bello Monte, Caracas, (1971)
• Centro Plaza, Caracas, (1972)
• Edificio CANTV, Caracas, (1973)
• Centro Comercial Libertador, Caracas, (1973)
• Torre La Primera, Caracas, (1973)
• Torre La Previsora, Caracas, (1973)
• Torre Diamen, Caracas, (1973)
• Banco Central de Venezuela, Caracas, (1973)
• Torre IBM, Caracas, (1974)
• Edificio CADAFE, Caracas, (1974)
• Torre Adriática, Caracas, (1974)
• Centro Altamira, Caracas, (1974)
• Museo de Arte Contemporáneo, Caracas, (1974)
• Torre El Chorro, Caracas, (1975)
• Torre Las Mercedes, Caracas, (1975)
• Torre Delta, Caracas, (1975)
• Edificio PANAVEN, Caracas, (1975)
• Edificio Banco Metropolitano, Caracas, (1976)
• Museo de Bellas Artes, Caracas, (1976)
• Instituto Nacional de Canalizaciones, Caracas, (1977)
• Torre Asociación Bancaria de Venezuela, Caracas, (1978)
• Torre América, Caracas, (1978)
• Torre Británica, Caracas, (1979)
• Edificio Oxal, Caracas, (1980s)
• Edificio La Unión, Caracas, (1980s)
• Torre Banco Lara, Caracas, (1982)
• Centro Comercial Ciudad Tamanaco, Caracas, (1982)
• Centro Nacional de Ajedrez, Caracas, (1982)
• Torre Clement, Caracas, (1982)
• Complejo Urbanístico Parque Central, Caracas, (1983)
• Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, Caracas, (1983)
• Sede del Ateneo, Caracas, (1983)
• Edificio IMPRES, Caracas, (1983)
• Edificio Hener, Caracas, (1985)

• 
  Tricorn Centre, United Kingdom
• 
  Habitat 67, Montreal, Canada
• 
  Llewellyn Hall, Canberra, Australia
• 
  Balfron Tower, London
• 
  Lester B. Pearson Building, Ottawa, Canada
• 
  Birmingham Central Library, United Kingdom
• 
  Carandiru (São Paulo Metro), Brazil
• 
  Friedenskirche, Monheim-Baumberg, Germany
• 
  Royal National Theatre
• 
  Hubert H. Humphrey Building
• 
  Richardson Building, University of Otago, New Zealand
• 
  Churchill College, Cambridge, United Kingdom
• 
  Western City Gate, Belgrade, Serbia
• 
  Zlatibor Hotel, Užice, Serbia
• 
  Monument to 1300 Years of Bulgaria, Shumen (1981), Bulgaria
• 
  Buzludzha monument (1981), Bulgaria
• 
  The big aviary at Sofia Zoo (1982), Bulgaria
• 
  Wyndham Court, Southampton, United Kingdom

See also

See also

• Panel building – many of which are large and constructed of bare concrete panels.
• Panelák – a panel building constructed of pre-fabricated, pre-stressed concrete which may resemble brutalist structures.
• Plattenbau – as above but in Germany

References

References

1. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 464.
2. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 469.
3. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 471.
4. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 470.
5. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 504.
6. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 499.
7. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 506.
8. Lizzie Cook (10 April 2020). "Ten significant concrete buildings featured in Chinese Brutalism Today". Dezeen.
9. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 502.
10. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 505.
11. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 495.
12. Setiap Gedung (21 December 2018). "Intiland Tower Surabaya (terbaru 23 Juni 2020)". setiapgedung.web.id. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
13. "All of America, and Parking Too". The New York Times.
14. Vũ, Hiệp (19 October 2021). "Isakovich và sự biến đổi kiến trúc Liên Xô ở Việt Nam" [Isakovich and the evolution of Soviet architecture in Vietnam]. Tạp chí Sông Hương. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
15. Jain, Kripa (13 December 2020). "10 Reasons why architects must visit Vietnam". Rethinking The Future. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
16. "New brutalism: Constantin Brodzki's Brussels HQ is up for renovation by Fosbury & Sons". Wallpaper*. 28 June 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
17. "Why Brutalism is back". www.francechannel.tv. Retrieved 17 May 2026.
18. "Why Brutalism is back". www.francechannel.tv. Retrieved 17 May 2026.
19. "Le brutalisme". Passerelles (in French). Retrieved 17 May 2026.
20. Abram, Joseph (1 July 2021). "Modernity and housing production in France after WWII". Docomomo Journal (65): 8–15. doi:10.52200/65.A.ZA6ULTGC. ISSN 2773-1634.
21. "Unité d'habitation Le Corbusier dite Cité Radieuse - POP". pop.culture.gouv.fr. Retrieved 18 May 2026.
22. "Le siège du PCF – Espace Niemeyer". espace-niemeyer.fr. Retrieved 18 May 2026.
23. "Grand ensemble des Tours Nuages du quartier Pablo Picasso - POP". pop.culture.gouv.fr. Retrieved 18 May 2026.
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27. Balci Öztürk, Özlem; Şenyurt, Oya (1 September 2024). "Localization of Brutalist Architecture in Post-War Turkey: Three Unique Examples from Istanbul". Architecture, Civil Engineering, Environment. 17 (3): 1–23. doi:10.2478/acee-2024-0017. ISSN 2720-6947. Retrieved 26 March 2026.
28. Yalav-Heckeroth, Feride (1 February 2024). "Brutalism, bureaucracy and beauty: Why Turkey's capital city isn't 'gray'". CNN. Retrieved 15 August 2025. And, between 1961 and 1980, the city obtained one of its most important university campuses, the Middle East Technical University, one of Turkey's key works of Brutalist architecture - the modernist style that uses exposed concrete or brick - designed by Behruz and Altuğ Çinici.
29. "Listed Buildings". Historic England. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
30. "Protecting Heritage Beyond the List". 21 January 2025. Local listing.
31. "How To Get Historic Buildings or Sites Protected Through Listing". Historic England. Certificates of Immunity. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
32. "Robin Hood Gardens Estate". Historic England. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
33. Eva Branscome (3 January 2005). "Imperial College – why we sometimes have to admit defeat". 20th Century Society. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
34. Rob Sharp (10 February 2005). "Clash of engineers sparks conflict over Imperial's Southside Halls". Architects' Journal.
35. Dalya Alberge (13 November 2016). "Save our brutalist masterpieces, says top heritage expert". The Guardian.
36. Historic England. "SMITHDON SCHOOL INCLUDING MAIN BLOCK WATER TOWER WORKSHOPS AND KITCHENS (Grade II*) (1077909)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
37. Historic England. "Dorman Long Tower (1477999)". National Heritage List for England. Archived from the original on 13 September 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2021.
38. "Dorman Long tower listed in emergency to stop demolition". BBC News. 13 September 2021.
39. "List entry Summary". Heritage Gateway. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
40. "Dorman Long tower to be destroyed after listed status revoked". BBC News. 17 September 2021.
41. Tom Lowe (24 November 2021). "Listing of Dormon Long tower was a 'farce', Teesside mayor says". Building Design.
42. Historic England. "1–18, Langham House Close (Grade II*) (1033380)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025. – Historic England. "19–24, Langham House Close (Grade II*) (1033381)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025. – Historic England. "25–30, Langham House Close (Grade II*) (1051027)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
43. Historic England. "Nos. 1-12 Scroope Terrace, the 1959 rear extension to no. 1 Scroope Terrace and the railings to the front. (Grade II) (1049092)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
44. Historic England. "Weeks Hall, Imperial College (Grade II) (1263062)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
45. Historic England. "Park Hill (Grade II*) (1246881)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
46. Historic England. "St Johns College, the Beehives (Grade II) (1278860)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
47. Historic England. "CRESCENT HOUSE INCLUDING GROUND FLOOR SHOPS AND SHAKESPEARE PUBLIC HOUSE (Grade II) (1021941)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
48. "Brutalism". RIBA. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
49. Historic England. "Falmer House including moat within courtyard (Grade I) (1381044)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
50. Historic England. "MEETING HOUSE INCLUDING KERBSTONES SURROUNDING MOAT (Grade II*) (1381048)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025. – Historic England. "MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES I INCLUDING STAIRCASE TO SOUTH AND EAST TO WEST WING ATTACHED TO EAST PEVENSEY BUILDING (Grade II*) (1381049)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025. – Historic England. "CHICHESTER BUILDING MOLECULAR SCIENCE I INCLUDING CHEMISTRY LECTURE THEATRE AND STAIRCASE TO S (Grade II*) (1381042)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025. – Historic England. "ENGINEERING (ENGG) ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCES INCLUDING STAIRCASE ADJOINING TO SOUTH (Grade II*) (1381043)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025. – Historic England. "ARTS A AND B INCLUDING COURTYARD POOL GARDNER ARTS CENTRE (Grade II*) (1381045)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025. – Historic England. "LIBRARY (Grade II*) (1381047)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025. – Historic England. "Attenborough Centre for the Creative Arts including kerbstones to pool (Grade II*) (1381046)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
51. Jessica Murray (28 September 2023). "Birmingham council votes to demolish brutalist landmark". The Guardian.
52. "Eros House, Catford, London: detail of the top of the staircase tower seen from below showing the board-marking". RIBApix – Brutalism Style Guide. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
53. Historic England. "Kingsgate Bridge (Grade I) (1119766)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
54. "St Aidan's College, Durham University: the dining hall". RIBA. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
55. "Durham, Durham University, St Aidan's College". CANMORE National Record of the Historic Environment. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
56. "St. Aidan's College, Windmill Hill, Durham City (Durham City)". Keys to the past. Durham County Council and Northumberland County Council. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
57. Historic England. "The Economist group (including office tower, residential block, former bank and podium) (Grade II*) (1264050)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
58. Historic England. "BIRMINGHAM NEW STREET SIGNAL BOX (Grade II) (1117383)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
59. "Tricorn Shopping Centre, Portsmouth, Hampshire: the parking garage". RIBApix – Brutalist Style Guide. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
60. Peter Hetherington (29 January 2000). "Bullish Birmingham baits London with plans for Britain's tallest tower". The Guardian.
61. Antram, Nicholas; Pevsner, Nikolaus (2013). Sussex: East with Brighton and Hove. The Buildings of England. London: Yale University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-300-18473-0.
62. Historic England. "Dunelm House including landing stage, steps and attached walls (Grade II) (1477064)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
63. "Hendon Hall Court, Great North Way, Hendon, London: detail of balconies". RIBApix – Brutalism Style Guide. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
64. Historic England. "NEW COUNTY HALL INCLUDING TERRACE POOL SURROUNDS AND BRIDGE TO COURTYARD (Grade II) (1323700)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
65. Historic England. "Balfron Tower (Grade II*) (1334931)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
66. Historic England. "Lecture Theatre Block, Brunel University (Grade II) (1400162)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
67. Historic England. "Central buildings Churchill College (Grade II) (1227706)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
68. Historic England. "Norfolk Terrace and attached walkways, at the University of East Anglia (Grade II*) (1390647)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
69. Historic England. "Suffolk Terrace and adjoining walkway and stairs to rear, at the University of East Anglia (Grade II*) (1390646)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2026.
70. Historic England. "Central Hall, University of York (Grade II) (1456551)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
71. Historic England. "Former Langwith College, University of York (Grade II) (1457043)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
72. Historic England. "Derwent College, University of York (Grade II) (1457040)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
73. "If not now, when? C20 renews 35-year long call for Southbank Centre listing". 20th Century Society. 6 February 2025.
74. Matthew Weaver (10 February 2026). "Campaigners welcome 'long overdue' listing of brutalist Southbank Centre". The Guardian.
75. Historic England. "Passmore Pavilion (Grade II) (1001606)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
76. "Discover South Norwood Brutalist Library". Retrieved 26 February 2025.
77. Historic England. "THE GARDEN BUILDING AT ST HILDAS COLLEGE (Grade II) (1379819)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
78. "WYNDHAM COURT INCLUDING RAISED TERRACE AND RAMPS WYNDHAM COURT INCLUDING TERRACES AND RAMPS, Non Civil Parish - 1051043 | Historic England". historicengland.org.uk. Retrieved 3 August 2023.
79. Historic England. "Preston Central Bus Station and Car Park (Grade II) (1416042)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
80. Historic England. "Chartered Accountants' Hall, One Moorgate Place (Grade II*) (1064586)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
81. Historic England. "Rodger Stevens Building (Grade II*) (1393836)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
82. Camila Ruz; Maisie Smith-Walters (4 November 2015). "When concrete buildings drive people mad". BBC News Magazine.
83. "Decision Summary". Heritage Gateway. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
84. Graham Young (23 September 2018). "These are the demolished Birmingham landmarks we've loved and lost". Birmingham Mail.
85. Historic England. "TRELLICK TOWER CHELTENHAM ESTATE (Grade II*) (1246688)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
86. Historic England. "Blackheath Quaker Meeting House with cobbled area of forecourt (Grade II) (1462016)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
87. Chris Beanland (12 February 2026). "Britain's 10 greatest brutalist buildings". The Daily Telegraph.
88. Historic England. "Philips Building, School of Oriental and African Studies (Grade II*) (1401342)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
89. Historic England. "Cathedral Church of SS Peter and Paul (Grade II*) (1271209)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
90. Historic England. "BARBICAN (Grade II) (1352667)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
91. Historic England. "Monastery of St Gregory the Great, with west, south and east cloister ranges, Downside Abbey (Grade II*) (1295178)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 5 March 2025.
92. Historic England. "Royal National Theatre (Grade II*) (1272324)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
93. Historic England. "INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION, CLORE INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED LEGAL STUDIES AND ACCOMMODATION FOR UNIVERSITY COLLEGE (Grade II*) (1246932)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
94. Historic England. "ALEXANDRA ROAD ESTATE INCLUDING WALLS, RAMPS AND STEPS COMMUNITY CENTRE AND BOILER HOUSE TO ALEXANDRA ROAD ESTATE NUMBERS 1-21 (INCLUDING A AND B TO EACH NUMBER) NUMBERS 4-119 (INCLUDING A AND B TO EACH NUMBER ON SOUTH SIDE, AND A-K TO EACH NUMBER ON NORTH SIDE) (Grade II*) (1130403)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 February 2023.
95. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 186.
96. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 184.
97. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 187.
98. "Town centre regeneration begins with demolition of 'landmark' office building". STV News. 4 December 2024.
99. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 185.
100. Atlas of Brutalist Architecture 2020, p. 183.
101. "Norco House, Aberdeen". Twentieth Century Society. Retrieved 13 February 2026.
102. "The Bourdon" (PDF). Glasgow School of Art. Retrieved 13 February 2026.
103. "Full Report for Listed Buildings – The Great Hall, Aberystwyth University 87943". Cadw. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
104. "Full Report for Listed Buildings – St David's Hall 87914". Cadw. Retrieved 6 March 2025.
105. Craigdarroch Residences (1964–67)
106. Landsdown Residences

Further reading

Further reading

• McLeod, Virginia; Barton, Emma, eds. (2020). Atlas of Brutalist Architecture. London: Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-1-83866-190-8. OCLC 1153068692.
• Romy Golan (June 2003). "Historian of the Immediate Future: Reyner Banham - Book Review". The Art Bulletin. Archived from the original on 1 April 2008.

External links

External links

• BBC Open University: From Here to Modernity Archived 2008-02-25 at the Wayback Machine - includes many Brutalist examples